parades carried banners praising the principle of a nation in arms. The Socialists in June set on foot a large miners' strike in the Borinage district around Mons, the object of which was to obtain the recall of recently issued obnoxious pit regulations as well as an increase of 20 per cent. in wages. Congresses. Four congresses dealing with questions concerning the welfare of the laboring classes were held in Brussels during the summer of 1897. The first, meeting on July 7, discussed the question of Sunday rest, and took account of all the grounds -hygienic, social, and religious-upon which it is advisable to insure to working people a respite from labor on the first day of the week and the means by which the desired end can be legally enforced. M. Nyssens, the Minister of Industry and Labor, presided at this congress, the committees of which were made up of prominent representatives of the cause from the various Continental countries and from England. The second congress, held on July 23 and the two succeeding days, dealt with the question of the housing of workingmen's families under improved conditions and at cheaper rents than now prevail. M. Beernaert, Minister of State and President of the Belgian Chamber, presided over this congress and over the next one, which opened on July 26 and remained five days in session, discussing the question of the employer's or the workman's liability in case of accidents, the compulsory insurance of workmen against illness as well as accident, and the just apportionment of the cost between the workmen and the masters. The legislation of European countries on this subject was studied with a view of working out a system of compulsory insurance for Belgium. The fourth congress, of which the Duc d'Ursel was chairman, discussed on Sept. 27 and the three following days the feasibility of organizing a system of international protective legislation for the benefit of workers in mines, factories, and other industrial establishments. Among the subjects of debate were hygienic regulations and the limiting of the hours of labor for men as well as for women and children. The chief countries of Europe and the United States were represented. On Aug. 30 a congress, presided over by exMinister Lejeune, met to discuss the ways of combating drunkenness and its consequent evils. This was the sixth international congress against alcoholism, and it remained in session four days. The most important subject of debate was the mission of the state in controlling or suppressing the abuse of alcohol and the poverty and misery caused by alcoholism, the increase of disease, insanity, vice, pauperism, and crime, and other grounds for state interference.

The international conference to promote arbitration was opened on Aug. 7 in the hall of the Chamber of Deputies, and had M. Beernaert for its president. There were delegates present from America, England, France, Austria, Germany, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, and Roumania. The British section offered resolutions expressing regret that the United States had refused to ratify the Anglo-American arbitration treaty. There was a women's congress held in August; also in conneetion with the Brussels exhibition were convoked congresses of legal, bibliographical, and architects' medico-legal associations. An international colonial congress was organized under the auspices of King Leopold, with Auguste Beernaert for its president, and representatives arrived from France, Spain, Hungary, Brazil, Persia, Santo Domingo, Servia, and the Congo Free State.

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America. The legislative power is vested in the Congress, consisting of a Senate of 18 members, elected for six years, and a Chamber of Deputies of 64 members, elected

for four years. Every male Bolivian of full age and able to read and write possesses the franchise. The President is elected for four years by the vote of the nation, and is not re-eligible for the next succeeding term.

Severo Fernandez Alonso was inducted as President on Aug. 15, 1896. The Cabinet at the beginning of 1897 was as follows: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Manuel M. Gomez; Minister of Finance, L. Gutierrez: Minister of the Interior and Justice, Macario Pinilla Minister of Public Instruction, Colonization, Telegraphs, Public Works, and Industry, Dr. J. V. Ocha; Minister of War, G. Sanjines.

Area and Population.-The present area of Bolivia is computed to be 567,360 square miles. The population, according to an official enumeration made between 1890 and 1893, is 2,019,549, not including about 250,000 wild Indians. The civilized Indians number about 1,000,000, whites 5,000,000, and mestizos 500,000. La Paz, the former capital, has about 40,000 inhabitants; Sucre, the present capital, has 20,000. Education is free and legally compulsory. There were 506 primary schools in 1894, with 710 teachers and 26,873 pupils.

Finances. The revenue for the financial year 1896 was estimated at 6.305,793 bolivianos, and the expenditures at 6,727,824 bolivianos. The public debt amounts to 9,493,705 bolivianos, consisting of 4,428,705 bolivianos of internal debt, various loans amounting to 3,065,000 bolivianos, and an external debt of 2,000,000 bolivianos. The expenditure on the army in 1896 was 1.781,624 bolivianos. The standing army numbers 1,250 men, besides which there is a National Guard, forming the reserve and the extraordinary reserve, in which, under the conscription law of 1892, all citizens are required to serve from the age of twenty-one to that of forty.

Commerce and Production.-Metals and forest products constitute the exports of Bolivia, besides some coffee, which is exported to Chili and the Argentine Republic, and hides and skins. Since the loss of Antofagasta to Chili Bolivia has had no seaport. The export of rubber is large and increasing. Coca is an important product, and so is cinchona, but less so than formerly. Sugar is grown for the distillation of rum. Wheat, corn, barley, and beans are raised for domestic consumption. Cattle, sheep, and llamas are numerous. These last are the common transport animals. Wool is made into coarse cloth worn by the Indians. The silver produced in 1894 was 14,519,296 ounces. Tin is found associated with silver, and in 1895 the export amounted to 2,000 tons of bars and about 4,000 tons of concentrated tin ore. The annual product of copper barilla is 3,000 tons. Gold is washed out by the Indians in small quantities. Other mineral products are antimony, bismuth, salt, and borax. The imports for 1894 were estimated at 6,800,000 bolivianos, consisting chiefly of provisions, hardware, textiles, wine and spirits, and apparel. The exports of silver and silver ore through Antofagasta are estimated at £1,914.500, and the tin exports at £433,900. Considerable silver is coined in the mint, but there has always been an export movement taking the coin out of the country, hence the Government now coins only half bolivianos and smaller pieces 8 per cent. lighter than the old bolivianos.

Communications.-There are 500 miles of railroad, forming the Bolivian section of the line leading from Antofagasta to Oruro, with a branch to Huanchaca. Concessions have been obtained for lines from Oruro to Cochabamba and from Challapata to Potosi, for one from La Paz to the Peruvian frontier, connecting with the road from Mol

Dürer, that continued in use until the sixteenth century, when they gave way to the Jacobean, the popularity of which continued until 1745, or perhaps somewhat later. The book-plate work of William Hogarth was Jacobean.

The Chippendale plate originated before the passing away of the Jacobean style, and continued subsequent to it. This style was characterized by the

THIS IS THE PROPERTY

OF

BENJAMIN CASE. N°.

SOUTHOLD, (L. I.) 181

'Tis America alone that can boast of the soil, Where the fair fruits of virtue and liberty smile.

EARLY AMERICAN NAME LABEL. DATE 1810 TO 1819. graceful curves and lines of the furniture that was then in vogue, from which it derived its name. The Ribbon-and-Wreath, or, as sometimes designated, the Festoon, style followed, and this became very popular for ladies' plates.

The Celestial, the Allegoric, the Portrait, the Bookpile, the Library Interior, and the View bookplates succeeded, in the order indicated, and as the caprice of the period and the artist and designer dictated.

Thomas Bewick did his best book-plate work, so much in favor now among collectors, in the View or Landscape style.

There is now apparently no prevailing school or style, all are fish that come to the modern designer's net; but if there be a tendency to-day it is toward what is called the Pictorial, which more than any other class affords opportunity to show, so far as such things can, the taste, the culture, and the ideals of the plate owner. They afford pleasing opportunities for the introduction of charming little bits of genre, artistic sketches, and a thousand tasteful creations that linger long in pleasant memory.

It was once customary to place upon a book-plate warning verses against various sins of omission or commission, selected examples of which are here introduced:

Fear not nor soil not.

Read all, but spoil not.

My friend, should you this book peruse,
Please to protect it from abuse:
Nor soil, nor stain, nor mark its page,
Nor give it premature old age:
And when it has effected all,
Please to return it ere I call.

If any one should borrow me,
Pray keep me clean;

For I am not like linen cloth,
That can be washed again.

Not until 1820 did book-plates begin to be collected and seriously studied, and it was a Miss Jenkins, of Bath, who inaugurated this amusement.

The book-plate collector has since been frequently subjected to no little abuse by writers who have scorned his harmless pastime, and who ignore the fact that the records on book-plates that are preserved by the indefatigable collector are sometimes of great utility, not alone to the historian and the genealogist, but also to the lawyer. They have compared him with Dr. Dibdin's Grangerite, who destroys ruthlessly many books for the sake of the extra illustration of other books (originally Granger's History of England, whence the derivative) with the engravings thus procured, and have even spoken of all collectors as ghouls, not knowing whereof they write.

Ladies' book-plates, as a separate class, first appeared in Germany about 1588. In England the earliest known is that of Elizabeth Pindar, dated 1606. Hannah Adams had the earliest known American plate.

The department of French book-plates is very interesting, as it records many political changes that have taken place, the influence of which has been reflected even in the examples of ex libris that have come down to us, which find no parallel in any other country. The illustration of a French plate of the middle of the seventeenth century shows a unique peculiarity wherein the arms rest upon a mosaic pavement, wherein the charges on the shield are reproduced on alternate squares thereon.

Prior to 1738 it was customary in England to "trick" the arms by indicating the color, as shown, instead of by arbitrary dots and lines in the conventional forms that subsequently came into use, which system now prevails.

England, Germany, France, and the United States all support ex libris societies, which encourage an interest in this subject. American collectors are turning more and more toward gathering plates of their own country, especially early American examples, and there is an especial interest for an American in such plates as those of George Washington, William Penn, Joseph Dudley, Daniel Webster, Oli

the best-known early engravers of book-plates in America was Nathaniel Hurd, whose style was principally Chippendale, and who engraved a plate for Harvard College which is still in use there. Alexander Anderson, who was the first American wood engraver, produced, so far as known, seven plates on wood and three on copper, included among which are plates for the old Apprentices' Library and Columbia College, which are executed in the Allegorical style. Henry Dawkins worked entirely in the Chippendale style. The style of Amos Doolittle favored the Allegorical. He is remembered by some excellent work of this kind, which includes two plates for the Societies of Yale College. Peter Rushton Maverick favored the Ribbon-and-Wreath style. He engraved a plate for De Witt Clinton, and two for the New York Society Library. Paul Revere was of the company of these early engravers of book-plates, his own and that of Epes Sargent being, perhaps, the best known of his work in this direction. One of the earliest collectors in the United States was the late James Eddy Mauran, of Newport, R. I., whose collection, when he died, in 1888, numbered about 3,500 plates. Among other collectors and authorities in this field in our country may be mentioned Richard C. Lichtenstein, of Boston, who has published several monographs on the subject; Fred J. Libbie, of Boston; H. E. Deats, of Flemington, N. J.; Dr. Henry C. Eno, of Saugatuck, Conn.; Mrs. Richard J. Barker, Warren, R. 1.; Miss Helen E. Brainerd, of Columbia College; Henry Blackwell, of New York; Dr. Charles E. Clark, of Lynn, Mass.; Nathaniel Paine, of Worcester, Mass.; Dr. Joseph H. Dubbs, of Lancaster, Pa.; Dr. George L. Parmalee, of Hartford, Conn.; James Terry, of New Haven, Conn.; H. W. Bryant, of Portland, Me.; George F. Allison, of Brooklyn, N. Y.; and Laurence Hutton, of New York. The literature on this subject is not extensive, and has been limited mainly to newspaper and magazine artieles. Charles Dexter Allen published in 1894 "American Bookplates," and in 1896 "Ex-Libris, Essays of a Col

man plates, M. C. M. Carlander of Swedish plates. Robert Day in Ireland and J. Orr in Scotland are workers in the same field. Much remains to be done with this subject. The Italian plates are without remarkable excellence or defect, being often flat and insipid. The Spanish are frequently harsh, but bold and gloomy. The Swiss are stiff and generally ill arranged, and the Russian, so far as they are known to exist, have been borrowed from the French of the Louis XV period.

BRAZIL, a federal republic in South America. The legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting of a Senate of 63 members, 3 from each State and the Federal District, and a House of Deputies containing 212 members, elected by the voters of the States in proportion to their population, 1 member to 70,000 inhabitants. Senators serve nine years, one third retiring every three years; Deputies are elected for three years. The State of Amazonas elects 4 Deputies; Pará, 7, Maranhão, 7; Piauhy, 4; Ceará, 10; Rio Grande do Norte, 4; Parahyba, 4; Pernambuco, 17; Alagoas, 6; Sergipe, 4; Bahia, 22; Espirito Santo, 4; Rio de Janeiro, 17: São Paulo, 22; Paraná, 4; Santa Catarina, 4; Rio Grande do Sul, 16: Minas Geraes, 37; Goyaz, 4; Matto Grosso, 4: the Federal District, 10. Every Brazilian male citizen twentyone years of age and able to read and write possesses the electoral franchise with the exception of soldiers actually serving in the army, members of monastic orders, and paupers. The President, who appoints the ministers and, with the consent of Congress, the judges of the Supreme Federal Tribunal and the diplomatic representatives, and has the supreme command of the military and naval forces, is elected by direct vote of the people for four years. The National Congress legislates on import duties, stamps, postal arrangements, and bank-note circulation. The States have the right to impose export duties, and each one is administered at its own expense without the interference of the

Federal Government save for defense, the maintenance of public order, and the execution of Federal laws.

The President of the republic, Prudente de Moraes Barros, elected for the term ending on Nov. 15, 1898, retired in November, 1896, and the VicePresident, Manoel Victorino Pereira, then became acting President. The Cabinet in the beginning of 1997 was as follows: Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Gen. Dionysio E. de Castro Cerqueira; Secretary of Finance, Dr. F. de P. Rodrigues Alves; Secretary of War, Gen. Bernardo Vasques; Secretary of Industry, Communications, and Public Works, Dr. A. Olyntho dos Santos Pires; Secretary of the Interior and Justice. Dr. A. de Seixas Martins Torres; Minister of Marine, Admiral Elisiario J. Barbosa. Area and Population.-The area of Brazil is estimated at 3,209,878 square miles. The population at the census of Dec. 31, 1890, was 16,330,216. The white population, residing in the seaport towns, numbered 3,787,289 in 1872, while the population of mixed blood numbered 3,801,787, the negroes, who predominate in Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Minas Geraes, numbered 1,954,452, and there were 386,955 Indians, who form the largest element in the population of the northern States. The immigration in 1890 was 107,100; in 1891. 218,958; in 1892, 86,513; in 1893, 84,143; in 1894, 63,294. In 1895 there arrived 164,598 immigrants at Rio de Janeiro and Santos. Among the immigrants in 1894 were 37,266 Italians, 17,251 Portuguese, 6,497 Spaniards, 812 Germans, 754 Austro-Hungarians, 310 French, and 91 British. In Rio Grande do Sul, where there are important German and Italian settlements, 15 foreign colonies, numbering 108,000 persons, occupy 562,400 hectares of land, of which 220,050 hectares are cultivated. The higher education is under the control of the Federal Government, while the States are required by the Constitution to provide free, secular primary education. In none of the States is education compulsory. At the last census 84 per cent. of the population was returned as illiterate.

Finances. The provisional returns give the Federal revenue for 1894 as 266,484,615 milreis (1 milreis = 546 cents), and the expenditure as 370,668,341 milreis. The budget estimate of revenue for 1895 was 300,725,297 milreis, and of expenditure 275.691,670 milreis; the estimate of revenue for 1896 was 331.174,400 milreis, and of expenditure 343,436,210 milreis. In the provisional estimates for 1997 the revenue is taken to be 335,894,000 milreis, of which 258,000,000 milreis are derived from customs, 1,700,000 milreis from various dues, 35,500,000 milreis from railroads, 7,100,000 milreis from posts and telegraphs, 8,300,000 milreis from stamps, 1.200.000 milreis from the waterworks of Rio de Janeiro, 1.500,000 milreis from lottery taxes, 6,939,000 milreis from miscellaneous sources, 1,700,000 milreis from tobacco duties, 150,000 milreis from export duties, and 13,805,000 milreis from extraordinary resources. The total of expenditure is estimated at 329,112.753 milreis, of which 16,258,872 milreis are for the Department of the Interior and Justice, 2,034,012 milreis for Foreign Affairs, 28,439.706 milreis for Marine, 54.767,584 milreis for War, 98.953.334 milreis for Industry, and 128,659,245 milreis for Finance.

The debt of the Federal Government on Dec. 31, 1895, amounted to 1,888,475.666 milreis, consisting of an external debt of £36,098,800, an internal funded debt of 362.488,635 milreis in paper, a a gold loan of 275.473,500 milreis, 678,073,022 milreis of paper currency, a floating debt of 244,628.677 milreis, and 6,893,500 milreis of guaranteed railroad debts. Converted into paper values at current rates the debt amounted to 2,713,952,000

milreis. On the foreign debts 4 and 44 per cent. interest is paid, on the internal funded debt from 4 to 6 per cent. The States had in 1895 funded debts amounting to 85,027,659 milreis, and 66,79,077 milreis of floating liabilities.

The Army.-Compulsory military service was introduced in Brazil in 1875. The term of service is three years in the active army and three years in the reserve. The army is organized in 40 battalions of infantry, with 1 transport and 1 depot company; 16 cavalry regiments of 4 squadrons each, 2 cavalry corps of 4 companies, 5 garrison companies, and 1 garrison squadron; 5 regiments of field artillery and 9 battalions of fortress artillery; and 2 battalions of engineers. The strength of the army in 1895 was 4,000 officers and 24,120 men.

The Navy.-The Brazilian navy contains some powerful vessels of modern type. The cruiser Almirante Tamandare," of 4,465 tons, built in Brazil in 1890, has engines of 7,500 horse power and a formidable armament of rapid-firing guns. The 24 de Maio," of 4,950 tons, is the reconstructed "Aquidaban," which was sunk by a torpedo during the naval revolt of 1893-'94 and afterward refloated. This ship and the "Riachuelo," of 5,700 tons, are English-built battle ships, armed with 21inch breech-loading guns mounted in turrets, and protected by a belt of 11-inch steel-faced armor. The "Nichtheroy," formerly called “El Cid,” is a first-class cruiser. The "Benjamin Constant," of 2,750 tons, and Barrozo," of 3,800 tons, are efficient second-class cruisers. There are 9 third-class cruisers and 6 port-defense armor clads and river monitors. The torpedo flotilla consists of 8 firstclass and 6 smaller torpedo boats. The torpedo cruiser" Aurora," of 480 tons, built in England in 1893, has a speed of 18 knots. A new programme of construction has been adopted, including 3 second-class and 3 third-class cruisers, 2 ironclads of 3,162 tons for port defense, 8 destroyers, 6 first-class torpedo boats, and 2 Goubet submarine boats.

Commerce and Production.-Brazil is the largest producer of coffee of all countries. The annual yield is about 8,000,000 bags of 60 kilogrammes. The crop of 1897 in the State of Rio de Janeiro alone was estimated at 3,750,000 bags. The crop of Santos in 1895 was 4,010,249 bags. In Pernambuco sugar is raised extensively; the crop of 1894 was 185,000,000 kilogrammes. The production of alcohol is large and increasing. Rubber is a valuable forest product of Pará and the Amazon region. The forests of Brazil are of enormous extent and contain many products of value, but they are not available on account of the lack of communications. The mineral resources of the country are great, but lack of fuel, of transport facilities, and of skilled labor stand in the way of their utilization. Enormous iron deposits lie unworked. English and French companies operate gold mines in Minas Geraes. There is also some mining in Bahia, where, besides gold, silver, lead, zine, iron, manganese, copper, and quicksilver have been found. Diamond mines are worked, though they are not so productive as formerly. In Rio Grande do Sul, where the 'climate is temperate and a large European population has settled, cattle raising is the leading industry. The number slaughtered in 1895 was 280,000. There are successful tanning establishments and breweries in this State, and the preserving of fruit for export is a growing industry. Cotton is raised in various parts of Brazil, and under a protective tariff progress is made in its manufacture.

The total value of imports in 1895 was estimated at $150,000,000. The import duties are very high on spirits, tobacco, matches, textiles, provisions, and other articles of consumption, ranging from 80 to