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ON THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE;

OR,

RULES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF EPISTOLARY COMPOSITION.

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THE preceding examples shew the importance of attending to the position of adverbs. Whenever they are placed at a distance from the noun they are intended to qualify, ambiguity will necessarily ensue.

The position of relatives is not of less consequence to the clearness of a sentence, than the position of adverbs: relatives should adhere to their antecedents. The disposition of the relative pronouns, who, which, what, whose, and of all those particles which connect the different parts of speech, is of the utmost consequence in Janguage. It seldom happens that the sense is brought out clear, when a relative is remote from its antecedent; but even where the meaning is intelligible, we always find something awkward and disjointed in the structure of the sentence, when relatives are out of their proper place. "This kind of wit," says an author, much in vogue among our countrymen, about an age or two ago; who did not practise it for any oblique reason, but purely for the sake of being witty." We are at no loss about the meaning here; but the construction would evidently be mended by disposing the circumstance, "about an age or two ago," in such a manner as not to separate the relative who from its antecedent our countrymen; in this way: "About an age or two ago this kind of wit was very much in vogue among our countrymen, who did not practise it," &c.

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The following passages are far more censurable: "It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of God." Which always refers grammatically to the substantive immediately preceding; and that, in the instance just given, is "treasures." The sentence ought to have stood thus: "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of God.""We no where meet with a more pleasing or glorious show in nature," says Lord Shaftsbury, "than what appears in the heavens at the rising and setting of the sun, which is wholly made up of those different stains of light which show themselves in clouds of a different situation."

As this sentence stands, it is the sun which is affirmed to be "made up of those different stains of light;" an affirmation which the succeeding part of the sentence proves to be foreign to his lordship's meaning. This whole sentence is so ill constructed, that there is no possibility of connecting the relative with its antecedent, but by giving the sentence another form. A letter now before me, from a school girl, contains the following passage: "This little performance was composed by M. d'Egville, for the purpose of showing off some of the best dancers in the school, who had built much upon the credit he should acquire by it." Here the relative who appears to relate to the best dancers, until we arrive at the pronoun he, which points out the relative's real antecedent. The sentence ought to have been arranged thus: "This little per. formance was composed by M. d'Egville, who had built much upon the credit he should acquire by it, for the purpose of showing off some of the best dancers in the school."

With regard to the relatives, it may be farther observed, that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, particularly of the pronouns who, they, them, and theirs, when we have occasion to refer to different persons, as in the following sentence of Tillotson: "Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation obscures them, and their commendable qualities stand in their light; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them." This is altogether careless writing. When we find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no method left but to throw the whole sentence into some form by which we may avoid those frequent references to persons who have before been mentioned. To have the relation of every word and member of a sentence marked in the most distinct manner, not only gives clearness to it, but makes the mind pass smoothly and agreeably along all the parts of it.

Having shewn the necessity of attending to the arrangement of words, I shall proceed to demonstrate that equal care should be exercised with respect to the disposition of circumstances,

and of particular members. Circumstances should be so distributed in a sentence, as to demonstrate af first sight to what fact they relate. An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus expresses himself: "Are these designs which any man, who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed to avow?" From this disposition of the words "in any circumstances, in any situation," we are at a loss to know whether they relate to "a man born in Britain, in any circumstances, in any situation," or to that man's "avowing his designs in any circumstances, or in any situation into which he may be brought." If, as is probable, the latter were intended, the sentence ought to have run thus:" Are these designs which any man, who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed, in any circumstances, in any situation, to avow?" The following is anothor instance of a wrong arrangement of circumstances: "A great stone that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor." One would think that the search was confined to the sea-shore, but as the meaning is, that the great stone was found by the sea-shore, the period ought to have run thus: "A great stone that, after a long search, I happened to find by the seashore, served me for an anchor."

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disorderly style is the wrong collocation of adverbs, relatives, circumstances, and members of a sentence, it is not the only one. The relatives which subsist between the inferior parts of speech must be properly demonstrate!, by arrangement, if we would express ourselves with accuracy. Writers who needlessly multiply words, and crowd a variety of particulars into one sentence are perpetually disjointing all the connectives. Lord Monboddo furnishes many instances of this, in his "Account of the Origin and Progress of Language." I have selected the two following:-In the first, speaking of puns, he says, They gave great offence to many, and sometimes, I believe, did much mischief, for it was not unlikely that his pun, (when speaking of Octavius, he said, that the young man was laudandus, ornandus, tollendus,) upon the word 'tollendus,' cost him his life. No one can read this sentence without perceiving that the words in italics ought have been joined, as "his pun upon the word tollendus." In the following instance, the verb and its nominative are so remote from each other, that on arriving at the former, we have to travel back to find what it refers to. "I cannot, at present, recollect any one instance of a Roman who, from tedium vitæ, low spirits, weak nerves, or whatever other naine we choose to give to the effects of intemperance, or the indulgence of pleasure without any moderation, art, or economy, destroyed himself." The sentence should have been written thus: "I cannot, at present, recollect any one instance of a Roman who destroyed himself," &c. for then the verb would have immediately followed its nominative. The following passages from Addison are transgressions against the same rule: "For the English are naturally fanciful, and very often disposed, by that gloominess and melancholy of temper, which are frequent in our na tion, to many wild notions and extravagancies, The correspondent members of a sentence should to which others are not liable." Here the verb be brought into as close contact as possible. The or assertion is, by a pretty long circum tince, sefollowing is an example of the wrong arrange. parated from the subject to which it refers This ment of a member: "The minister of state, might have been easily prevented, by placing the who grows less by his elevation, like a little sta- circumstance before the verb, thus: "For the tue placed on a mighty pedestal, will always English are naturally fanciful, and by that gloomihave his jealousy strong about him." Here, so ness and melancholy of temper which are so frefar as can be gathered from the arrangement, it||quent in our mation, are often disposed to many is doubtful whether the object introduced, by way of simile, relates to what goes before, or to what follows. This ambiguity is removed by the following order: "The minister of state, who, like a little statue placed on a mighty pedestal, grows less by his elevation, will always," &c.

In constructing a sentence we should be careful not to crowd too many circumstances together, but rather to intersperse them in different parts of the sentence, joined with the principal words on which they depend. For instance; "What I had the opportunity of mentioning to my friend, some time ago, in conversation, was not a new thought." These two circumstances, some time ago, and " in conversation," which are here put together, would have had a better effect disjoined, thus: "What I had the opportunity, some time ago, of mentioning to my friend, in conversation, was not a new thought."

Nothing should be suffered to intervene between a verb, or assertion, and the subject to which it refers; or between any word connected together in the thought. Although the grand source of a

wild notions," &c. "For as no mortal author, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, knows to what use his works may, some time or other be applied," &c. Better thus: "For as, in the ordinary fate and vicissitude of things, no mortal author knows to what use, some time or other, his works may be applied."

This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when different things have an obvious relation to each other in respect to the order of na

ture or time, that order should be regarded, in || order of nature. First, we have the variety of assigning them their places in a sentence; unless objects mentioned, which sight furnishes to the the scope of the passage requires to be varied. mind; next we have the action of sight on these The conclusion of the following lines is in- objects; and lastly, we have the time and conaccurate in this respect: But still there will be tinuance of its action. No order could be more such a mixture of delight, as is proportioned to natural or exact. the degree in which any one of these qualifications is most conspicuous and prevailing. "The order in which the two last words are placed should have been reversed, and made to stand prevailing and conspicuous. They are conspicuous, because they prevail. The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict conformity to this rule. "Our sight fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest distance, and continues the longest in action, without being tired or satiated with its proper enjoyment." This passage follows the

These, and the examples given before, show how the sense may be obscured by an irregular order of the parts of a sentence. A little attention to the rules which have been laid down, will prevent similar faul's occurring in the style of those who may be desirous of expressing themselves with perspicuity, accuracy, and elegance; and since there are none who will deny that the attainment of these properties is desirable, there are few, it is presumed, who will deem the pains requisite to acquire them too great an exertion.

FAMILIAR LECTURES ON USEFUL SCIENCES.

ON ASTRONOMY,

From a Work published in the last Month by the justly celebrated Mrs. BRYAN, entitled, "Lectures on Natural Philosophy, the result of many years' experience of the facts elucidated," the following extract is made. It is a lecture on Astronomy; and we doubt not but it will prove acceptable to such of our female readers as are ambitious of that scientific knowledge which is at once elegant and useful.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM EXPLAINED, &c. SO grand, beautiful and sublime, is the whole scheme of the universe, that it requires the association of all the most elevating ideas to raise the mind to a pitch of thought capable of conveying even the weakest impression of its astonishing excellence! yet the assimilating power of science enables us to calculate many of its sublime effects, and to view and understand its resplendent beauties and most powerful energies, with ease, satisfaction and conviction.

Aided by mathematics, we venture to speak with certainty of the sizes, distances, periods and motions of some of the heavenly bodies, though far removed from our familiar inspection. The solar system was first established by Pythagoras; and since revived by Copernicus, after the exuberance of genius had been corrected by the infusions, and modified by the restrictions of science.

That the motions of the heavenly bodies excited the attention of the earliest ages we may readily believe; for the necessities of human nature must have naturally led men to

contemplate the aspects of the sun and moon for different times and seasons, in order to regulate the affairs of agriculture and domestic employment. The results of these early investigations excited an increasing curiosity in the breasts of intelligent men, and led them to contemplate the fixed stars, the influence of which was then much considered and accreditcd. But science being incompetent to enable men to ascertain either the sizes or distances of the stars, they are only distinguished by their different apparent magnitudes; and by being grouped into constellations, and characterized by names, either of particular observers of these beautiful luminaries, or adapted to different events in profane history. This arrangement was particularly useful to navigation before the use of the magnet was discovered.

In the centre of the solar system is placed the sun, like the father of a family, surrounded by bodies dependent on his emanations, called planets; one of which is our earth. Mercury is situated nearest the grand luminary; next

Venus; then our Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, || primaries, and also revolving with them round and Herschel, or Georgium Sidus. the sun. Our earth has one moon; Jupiter, four; Saturn seven; and the Georgium Sidus six, already discovered. From the benefits derived from the influences of the moon on our earth, we naturally infer, that the satellities of the other planets perform the same essential and salutary offices to the respective worlds connected with them.

Three other planets, lately discovered, have not yet been introduced into astronomical tables; yet I must not neglect mentioning them. Of these, the two first discovered are called Piazzi and Olbers, after the names of their discoverers; or, as they are otherwise called, Ceres and Pallas. The former of these planets was discovered on the first day of the present century-namely, January 1, 1801, by M. Piazzi, astronomer, at Palermo in Sicily; and the latter on the twentyeighth March, 1802, by Dr. Olbers, astronomer, at Bremen in Germany. Both of these planets appear extremely small, like telescopic stars of the seventh or eighth magnitude. They move in orbits between those of Mars and Jupiter, and in some parts of their tracks they approach very near to each other; and, what is singular in our observations of these planetary bodies, their orbits cross each other; the planet Olbers coming nearer to the sun than Piazzi in the perihelion, or near part of their orbits; but going off to a greater distance than the latter in their aphelion, or further part of their orbits; this singularity is owing to the great eccentricity of the orbit of Olbers, which is equal to one-fourth part of its mean distance, while that of Piazzi is but about the twenty-eighth part of its mean distance from the sun. The other planet was discovered, September 1, 1804, by Mr. Hardinge, astronomer, at the Observatory at Lilienthall, near Bremen, in Germany. It appears very small, like a telescopic star of the eighth magnitude. Subsequent observations have determined some of its phenomena. Its period is four years four months; the inclination of its orbit between 139 and 21°. Its mean distance from the sun three hundred millions of miles.

The periodical time of Olbers is found to be four years seven months and ten days: and that of Piazzi but very little different. The sizes of these planets are variously stated by different astronomers. Taking the apparent diameter at a second and a half, the real diameter may be about one-seventh of that of our earth, or onehalf that of the moon. From Dr. Herschel's observations they appear to be much smaller; namely, the diameter of Piazzi about one hundred and sixty-two miles, and that of Olbers only nine v-five miles. He also considers them of a different species from the other known planets, and calls them asteroids; as in the clear, ness of their light they resemble the other planets and stars, while in their size and motion they resemble the comets.

Some of the planets have satellites, or moons, belonging to them; performing revolutions round a centre between themselves and their

To afford a rational solution of the globes, and the problems to be performed by them, I shall state the circumstances which confirm us in the belief of the sun being the central body of our system; and of the planets, and thei moons, or satellites, shining only by reflecting the light of the sun also, show how the rotation of these bodies on their axes is ascertained, and explain the causes of eclipses. It is evident to our senses that the earth and the heavenly bodies move round each other. The revolving bodies move in an unresisting medium, on which account these motions are continual, and always regular. It is impossible, by the sense alone, to ascertain which of these has the quickest, and which the slowest motion; or which moves exterior, and which interior, in respect to another; because the atmosphere revolving with the earth, renders that motion insensible to creatures on i's surface; for the earth has no motion independent of its atmosphere. Hence, as our senses are insuf. ficient to determine the fact, we must call in the aid of our judgment, which may be confirmed by reasoning on known truths. Notwithstanding the possibility of the earth moving round the sun, yet as we cannot perceive that it does so by sensible effects, to establish that fact, we will compare this circumstance with effec s perceived in familiar instances, and confirmed by undeviat ing laws.

Suppose a large bill placed on one extremity of a stick, and a smaller one on its other extremity; to place the whole in such a manner that we may give it a revolving motion round the centre of gravity between the balls, we must duly balance the two balls, by placing their centre of gravity on a point, or pivot. It is evident to reason, that the centre, of gravity of these two unequal bodies must be nearer to the larger than to the smaller one. It is a known law in motion, that revolving bodies connected together by an intervening agent, as the sun and planets really are by attraction, must move round a centre; and that centre be nearer to the larger than to the smaller bodies

The sun, from his magnitude, balances all the bodies which circulate round him; and these bodies are all connected with that luminary by the power of gravity. It must be obvious to every one, that the sun, being the largest of the

bodies constituting the solar system, must perform his revolution nearer to the common centre of gravity than any of the others.

The centre of gravity between the sun and all the planets is not more than the sun's semidiameter from itself. Thus, by familiar observations, and easy inferences, we are able to establish the sublime and important fact that the sun is the central body of our system.

That the planets shine only by reflecting the light of the sun, is evident in the effects perceived of the inferior planets, Venus and Mercury; and also of the moon that accompanies our earth, and the satellites of Jupiter; which never appear bright but when so situated that they receive the sun's rays.

The moon performs her revolution round the centre of gravity between herself and the earth, in a plane inclined to the earth's orbit.

that it is greater at the equator than at the poles: and hence it is, that the equatorial part of our earth is larger than any other; which postulatum has been established by actual mensuration and the law of pendulums. The application of the latter to ascertain this circumstance, arose from the motion of this instrument being accelerated by an increased force of gravity, and retarded by its weaker impressions. Hence we infer, that as a pendulum vibrates slower at the equator, that part must have its gravity counteracted by some power, which power is found to be the centrifugal force; this counteracts in a degree the effects of gravity at the equator, and also enlarges that part of the surface of our globe.

In recurring to the other circumstances of the solar system, it becomes necessary to mention certain bodies that are perceived by us at irregu lar intervals, called comets; but of which no positive theory is established: for neither their periods nor distances are actually ascertained; though calculations have been made of the length of the orbits of some of them, and the time of their revolutions, by observations taken of the velocity with which these bodies move in certain parts of their orbits. However, we may suppose the orbits of comets to be very long ellipses, because these bodies are sometimes far beyond our sight, and at others approach very near to the sun, moving with great velocity in their nearest approach to that luminary. From the known laws of motion, and of centrifugal and centripetal forces, we know that all the planets revolve in elliptical orbits, and must therefore be sometimes nearer to the sun, and at other periods further removed from their grand

That the planets are globular bodies actual observations have determined. As thus: by the aid of glasses we are able to discern spots on some of these bodies: and the different appearances of the spots at different times have been such as must arise from viewing them on the surface of a globular revolving body; namely, their appearing broader than in the centre, in respect to our sight, than when approaching to our central situation, or near to the sides of the revolving body. These effects are most evident on the sun and moon; by which observations the time of the rotation of each of these bodies on its axis is determined. The circular figure cast by our earth in its shadow, as proved at the time of an eclipse of the sun, have indisputably established this fact. The fixed stars, as they are called, from their b ing stationary in respect to our ob-vivifying principle. This change of distance we servations of them, always appearing at nearly the same points in the heavens relatively to each other, furnish us, by their apparent diurnal revolution (which is produced by the real motion of our globe on its axis), with the time of the en tire rotation of the earth; for by the observation of the situation of a certain fixed star on one evening, and its return to the same spot the next, this is ascertained. The sun is so distant from us, that he appears stationary; yet even his motion can be estimated, by our observations of certain spots on his surface.

Having endeavoured to establish the facts of the sun being the centre of the system, and the planets shining only by his light, I shall proceed with the subject of motion.

All bodies revolving on an axis exert a force from their centre, which force is increased in proportion to the greater distance of any part of such bodies from that centre. These effects of the centrifugal force being applicable to the nature and configuration of our earth, we infer

perceive in respect to our earth, for in winter the sun subtends a larger angle with it than in summer; accordingly, the sun must be nearer to us in the former season than in the latter; but this difference is so small, compared with his absolute distance from us, even in our nearest approach to his splendid animating orb, that no diminution or augmentation of either heat or light is perceived, in consequence of this change of distance.

Let us for a moment leave the small part of the universe to which we belong, and extend our view within the confines of the ethereal expanse; where suns innumerable resplendent shine, animating other planetary worlds that circulate round them. This idea is too grand for our cir cumscribed comprehensions to appreciate; but the fact is established by the evidences of our senses, and confessedly manifested to us by our reason, which perceives and judges of one thing by another. God has created nothing in vain ; and these beautiful luminaries appear like our

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