prefent ftate of the world, of natural religion; and as we cannot form an adequate notion of morality, but by confidering it as a branch of natural religion, we can perceive no folid objection to Dr. Paley's definition of virtue, or to the fanction by which alone he thinks it can be enforced. Mr. Pearson indeed fays, that "It would be hard to deny the capacity of being virtuous to all thofe, who have not attained to fuch a belief of a life to come, as to influence their actions; the cafe, probably, of the most respectable part, if not the majority, of the ancient heathen world. Yet were this claufe (for the fake of everlafting happiness) admitted into the definition of virtue, this would be the evident confequence. For, even though they did good to mankind, and did it in obedience to the will of God, it follows from this definition, that they could not be virtuous in doing fo, unlefs they alfo had regard to everlasting hap piness." P. 15. To illustrate this reasoning, he observes, that "the Sadducees among the Jews, and the Epicureans among the heathens, totally rejected the belief of a future ftate. Shall we therefore fay, that no Sadducee or Epicurean ever did a virtuous action ?” A Sadducee might certainly perform a virtuous action, either on Dr. Paley's principles, or on this author's; but it is difficult to conceive how an Epicurean could be virtuous, if virtue be voluntary obedience to the will of God. The Epicurcans were unquestionably one fect of thofe philofophers, qui omnino nullam habere cenferent humanarum rerum procurationem deas. Quorum fi vera fententia eft, quæ poteft effe pietas? quæ fanctitas? que religio? hæc enim omnia, purè, ac caftè tribuenda deorum numini ita funt, fi animadvertentur ab his, et fi eft aliquid a diis immortalibus hominum generi tributum. Sin autem dii neque poffunt nos juvare, neque volunt; nec omnino curant; nec quid agamus animadvertunt; nec eft quod ab his ad hominum vitam permanare poffit: quid eft, quòd ullos diis immortalibus cultus, honores, preces adhibeainus ?-Atque haud fcio, an pietate adverfus deos fublata, fides etiam, et focietas humani generis, et una excellentiffima virtus juftitia tolla. tur." Cicer. de Nat. Deorum, Lib. 1. It is indeed obvious, that no virtuous action could be performed by men holding fuch opinions refpecting Providence, if virtue be voluntary obedience to the will of God. They might attend to the fitness refulting from the neceffary difference of things, or obey the dictates of the moral fenfe in their tranfactions with each other; but, according to this author, as well well as Dr. Paley, neither this obedience, nor that fitness, confitutes virtue*. The cafe of the Sadducee was very different from that of the Epicureans. A Sadducee certainly believed in the God of Ifrael, and admitted, in fome fenfe, his fuperintending providence. The Jewith law promifed temporal happiness to the virtuous, and threatened temporal mifery to the vicious. "These promifes and threats were carried into effect during the continuance of the theocracy; and it might be the belief of the Sadducees, as it was of the other Jews, that they would be carried into effect again under the expected reign of the Meffiah. A Sadducee, therefore, might pay a voluntary obedience to the will of God, from a regard to his own happiness, and thus be a virtuous man as well on Dr. Paley's principles, as on those of this author. It is true, that the Archdeacon and his mafter define virtue to be " the doing good to mankind in obedience to the will of God, and for the fake of everlasting happiness" and it was certainly not improper to do fo in an age and country, where virtue is not uniformly rewarded, nor vice uniformly punished, in the prefent life; but had they written under the Jewish theocracy, their definition would probably have been," the doing good to mankind in obedience to the will of God, and for the fake of happiness." All that, to us at leaft, the Archdeacon's fyftem feems to require, is, that by the appointment of God, virtue fhall lead to happinefs, and vice to mifery, either here or hereafter; and as this is obviously not always the cafe here, it directs mankind to reft their hopes principaliy on a future ftate. The reader will obferve, that we have not faid that no Epicurean could perform a virtuous action. We only contend, that the virtue of an Epicurean is as inconfiftent with this author's definition of virtue, as with Dr. Paley's. If virtue be defined the voluntary doing of good to mankind, without including in the definition either the motive to virtue, or its foundation, an Epicurean may certainly perform virtuous actions, prompted thereto either by the moral fenfe, or by the profpect of immediate felf-intereft, with which, as Mr. Pearfon well obferves (pp. 24, 25) the provident goodness of God has, in many inftances, made our duty to agree." (To be concluded in our next.) M BRIT. CRIT, VOL. XXII. FEB. 1804. ART. ART. IX. Oriental Cuftoms: or an Illustration of the Sacred Scriptures, by an explanatory Application of the Cuftoms and Manners of the Eaflern Nations, and especially the Jews, therein ailuded to. Together with Obfervations on many difficult and obfcure Texts, collected from the moft celebrated Travellers, and the most eminent Critics. By Samuel Burder. 8vo. 400 pp. 7s. Williams. 1802. MR.HARMER's Obfervations on Paffages of Scripture have long been out of print, which circumftance, among many others, affords a fatisfactory proof, that the branch of literature which he cultivated was both ufeful and acceptable to many readers. Mr. Burder, the author of this volume, has pursued, with confiderable effect, though he has confined himself to a fmaller circle, precifely the fame plan; and, to the materials collected from Harmer, has added fome very important remarks, from Shawe, Pococke, Ruffell, Bruce, and many diftinguished modern writers. This author, thinking the work of Mr. Harmer too copious and extenfive for general usefulnefs, has confined his publication to a fingle volume; but this nevertheless comprifes illuftrations of the whole facred volume, from Genefis to the Book of Revelation. The writer fpeaks of himself and his production with fingu lar modefty; but we have no fcruple in faying, that his book will be found both interefting and ufeful. A fhort extract will enable the reader to determine for himself. We affume for granted, that where the author's name is not fpecified, the remarks and illuftrations are those of Mr. Burder himself. "No. 168.-Pfalm xvi. Title. Michtam. "D'Herbelot obferves of the works of feven of the most excellent Arabian poets, that they were called Al Modhahebat, which fignifies golden, because they were written in letters of gold upon Egyptian paper. (p. 586.) Might not the fix pfalms which are thus diftinguifhed be fo called, on account of their having been, on fome occafion or other, written in letters of gold, and hung up in the fanctuary? Ainfworth fuppofes that Michtam fignifies a golden jewel. Such a title would have been agreeable to the eaftern tafte, as D'Herbelot has mentioned a book intitled Bracelets of Gold. Writing in letters of gold fill continues in the Eaft. Maillet, fpeaking of the royal Mo hammedan library in Egypt, fays, "the greatest part of these books were written in letters of gold, fuch as the Turks and Arabs, even of our time, make ufe of in the titles of their books." (Lett. xiii. p. 189.) The Perfians are fond of elegant manufcripts, gilt and adorned with garlands of flowers. (Jones's Perfian Grammar, p. 144) "No. 169. xix. 10. Sweeter also than honey and the honey comb.] There is no difference made amongst us between the delicacy of honey an in the comb and that which is feparated from it. From the information of Dr. Halley, concerning the diet of the Moors of Barbary, we' learn, that they esteem honey a very wholefome breakfast, " and the moft delicious, that which is in the comb, with the young bees in it, before they come out of their cafes, whilft they ftill look milk-white." (Mifcellanea Curiofa, vol. iii. p. 382.) The diftinction made by the Pfalmift is then perfectly juft, and conformable to cuftom and practice, at least of more modern, and probably equally fo of ancient times. "No. 170-xx. 5. In the name of our God we will fet up our banners.] The banners formerly fo much ufed were a part of military equipage, borne in times of war, to affemble, direct, diftinguish, and encourage the troops. They might poffibly be used for other purposes alfo. Occafions of joy, fplendid proceffions, and efpecially a royal habitation, might feverally be diftinguifhed in this way. The words of the Pfalmift may perhaps be wholly figurative; but, if they should be literally understood, the allufion of erecting a banner in the name of the Lord, acknowledging his glory, and imploring his favour, might be juftified from an exilting practice. Certain it is, that we find this cuftom prevalent on this very principle in other places, into which it might originally have been introduced from Judea. Thus Mr. Turner (Embafly to Tibet, p. 31) fays, "I was told that it was a custom with the foobah to afcend the hill every month, when he fets up a white flag, and performs fome religious ceremonies, to conciliate the favour of a dewta, or invifible being, the genius of the place, who is faid to hover about the fummit, difpenfing at his will good and evil to every thing around him." "No. 171.-xlii. 3. My tears have been my meat day and night.] It feeins odd to an English reader to reprefent tears as meat or food; but we fhould remember, that the fuftenance of the ancient Hebrews confifted for the most part of liquids, fuch as broth, pottage, &c. No. 172.-xliv. 20. Stretched out our hands.] The ftretching out of the hand towards an object of devotion, or an holy place, was an ancient ufage among both Jews and heathens, and it continues in the Eaft to this time. Pitts, in his account of the religion and manners of the Mahometans, fpeaking of the Algerines throwing wax candles and pots of oil overboard, to fome Marabbot (or Mohammedan faint) fays, "when this was done, they all together held up their hands, begging the Marabbot's bleffing, and a profperous voyage." (p. 17.) This cuttom he frequently obferved in his journey. "No. 173.-xlv. 3. Gird thy fword upon thy thigh.] The Eaftern fwords, whofe blades are very broad, are worn by the inhabitants. of thefe countries under their thigh when they travel on_horfeback. Chardin takes notice of thefe particulars. He fays, the Eaftern people have their fwords hanging down at length, and the Turks wear their fwords on horfeback under their thigh. This paffage, and Sol. Song, iii. 8. fhow they wore them after the fame manner anciently. Harmer, vol. i. p. 448. "No. 174. lvi. 8. Put my tears into thy bottle.] Doth not this feem to intimate, that the custom of putting tears into the ampullæ, or urna lachrymales, fo well known amongst the Romans, was inore an M 2 ciently ciently in ufe amongst the Eastern nations, and particularly amongst the Hebrews? Thefe urns were of different materials, fome of glais, fome of earth; as may be feen in Montfaucon's Antiq. Expliq. vol. v. p. 116, where alfo may be feen the various forms or fhapes of them. Thefe urns were placed on the fepulchres of the deceased, as a memorial of the diftress and affection of their furviving relations and friends. It will be difficult to account for this expreffion of the Pfalmift, but upon this fuppofition. If this be allowed, the meaning will be, let my diftrefs, and the tears I fbed in confequence of it, be ever before thee, excile thy kind remembrance of me, and plead with thee to grant me the relief I fiand in need of. Chandler's Life of David, vol. i. P. :06. No. 175. Iviii. 6. Break their teeth.] This clause of the verfe is understood as a continuation of the foregoing verfe, and to be interpreted of the method made ufe of to tame ferpents, which Chardin fays, is by breaking out their teeth. Mufic has a wonderful influence upon them. Adders will fwell at the found of a flute, raifing themselves up on the one half of their body, turning themselves about, and beating proper tine. (Harmer, vol. ii. p. 223.) Teixeira, a Spanish writer, in the first Book of his Perfian Hiftory, fays, that in India he had often feen the Gentiles leading about the enchanted ferpents, making them dance to the found of a flute, twining them about their necks, and handling them without any harm. (See also Picart's Ceremonies and Religious Cuftoms of all Nations, vol. iii. p. 268, note). Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 152. "No. 176.-lix. 14. Dog.] Though dogs are not suffered in the houses in the Eaft, and people are very careful to avoid them, left they should be polluted by touching them, there are great numbers of them in their ftreets. They do not belong to particular perfons, nor are they fed regularly, but get their food as they can. It is confidered right, however, to take fome care of them: thus charitable people frequently give money to butchers and bakers to feed them, and fome legacies at their deaths for the fame purpofe. (Le Bruyn, tom. i. p. 361.) Dogs feem to have been looked upon among the Jews in a difagreeable light, (1 Sam. xvii. 43; 2 Kings, viii. 13;) yet they had them in confiderable numbers in their cities. They were not fhut up in their houfes or courts, but feem to have been forced to feek their food where they could find it. (Pfalm lix. 6, 14, 15.) Some care of them feems to be indirectly enjoined upon the Jews, Exod. xxii. 31. Harmer, vol. i. p. 220. No. 177.-lxix. 9. The zeal of thine house hath eaten me up.] Peyfonnel, in his Remarks on Baron Du Tott (p. 45,) describes a cuftom which probably is alluded to by the Pfalmift. "Thofe who are aggrieved ftand before the gate of the feraglio: each carries on his head a kind of match, or wick, lighted and fmoaking, which is confidered as the allegorical emblem of the fire that confumes his foul." The LXX. acquainted with this practice, have given a version of the paffage more bold than our own, and more agreeable to the Hebrew. The zeal of thine houfe hath MELTED me-i. e. confumed me by fire. "No. 178.-lxxii. 10. The kings of Tarshish and of the ifles shall bring prefents.] Prefents were fometimes made as an acknowledgment |