LITERARY PROPERTY. See BooKS.

LITHARGE (Ger. Glötte, Glätte; Du. Gelit; Fr. Litharge; It. Litargirio; Sp. Almartaga, Litarjirio; Rus. Glet; Lat. Lithargyrium), an oxide of lead in an imperfect state of vitrification. Most of the lead met with in commerce contains silver, from a few grains to 20 ounces or more in the fodder : when the quantity is sufficient to pay the expense of separation, it is refined; that is, the metal is exposed to a high heat, passing at the same time a current of air over the surface: the lead is thus oxidised and converted into litharge, while the silver, remaining unchanged, is collected at the end of the process.--(Thomson's Chemistry, &c.) Litharge is used for various purposes in the arts, by potters, glass makers, painters, &c.

[LIVERPOOL. See Supplement.—Am. Ed.]

LOADSTONE (Ger. Magnet; Du. Magneet; Fr. Aimant; It. Calamita; Sp. Iman; Rus. Magnit; Lat. Magnes). M. Haüy observes, that the ores in which the iron contains the least oxygen without being engaged in other combinations, form natural magnets; and he calls the loadstones of commerce, which are found in considerable masses in Germany, Sweden, Norway, Spain, Italy, China, Siam, the Philippine Isles, Corsica, and Ethiopia, oxidulated iron. The loadstone is characterised by the following properties:-A very strong action on the magnetic needle. Specific gravity 4.2457. Not ductile. Of a dark grey colour, with a metallic lustre.-Primitive form, the regular octahedron. Insoluble in nitric acid. This singular substance was known to the ancients; and they had remarked its peculiar property of attracting iron; but it does not appear that they were acquainted with the wonderful property which it also has, of turning, to the pole when suspended, and left at liberty to move freely. Upon this remarkable circumstance the mariner's compass depends,― an instrument which gives us such infinite advantages over the ancients. It is this which enables the mariner to conduct his vessel through vast oceans out of the sight of land, in any given direction; and this directive property also guides the miner in subterranean excavations, and the traveller through deserts otherwise impassable. The natural loadstone has also the quality of communicating its properties to iron and steel; and when pieces of steel properly prepared are touched, as it is called, by the loadstone, they are denominated artificial magnets. (See COMPASS.)

LOBSTER (Fr. Ecrevisse: Lat. Cancer), a fish of the crab species, of which vast quantities are consumed in London.

The minimum size of lobsters offered for sale is fixed by 10 & 11 Will. 3. c. 24, at eight inches from the tip of the nose to the end of the middle fin of the tail. No lobsters are to be taken on the coasts of Scotland between the 1st of June and the 1st of September, under a penalty of 5. The Scilly Islands and the Land's End abound in lobsters, as well as several places on the Scotch shores, particularly about Montrose. But the principal lobster fishery is on the coast of Norway; whence it is believed upwards of 1,200,000 lobsters are annually imported into London. Those of Heligoland are, however, esteemed the best; they are of a deeper black colour, and their flesh is firmer than those brought from Norway. Foreign caught turbots and lobsters may be imported either in British or foreign vessels free of duty.

LOCK, LOCKS (Ger. Schlösser; Du. Sloten; Fr. Serrures; It. Serrature; Sp. Cerraduras, Cerrajos; Rus. Samki), a well known instrument, of which there are infinite varieties. A great deal of art and delicacy is sometimes displayed in contriving and varying the wards, springs, bolts, &c., and adjusting them to the places where they are to be used, and to the occasions of using them. From the various structure of locks, accommodated to their different intentions, they acquire various names, as stock locks, spring locks, padlocks, &c. Wolverhampton was, at a very early period, famous for the superior skill and ingenuity of its locksmiths; but the best locks are now made in London and Birmingham. The grand difficulty to be overcome in making a lock is to construct it so that it may not be opened by any key except its own, nor admit of being picked; it should also be possessed of sufficient strength and durability, and not be too complex. Many ingenious contrivances have been proposed for the attainment of the desired security,-several of which are possessed of considerable merit. We believe, however, that there is none that combines all the principal requisites of a lock in so eminent a degree as "Chubb's Detector Lock," so called from the inventor, Mr. Chubb, of Portsea. Common door-locks are now usually inserted in the wood, instead of being, as formerly, screwed to it; and when so placed are called mortise locks.

LOGWOOD (Fr. Bois de Campèche, Ger. Kampescholz; Du. Campecheout; Sp. Palo de Campeche), the wood of a tree (Hæmatoxylon Campechianum Lin.), a native of America, and which attains the greatest perfection at Campeachy, and in the West Indies, It thrives best in a wet soil, with a large proportion of clay. The logwood tree is like the whitethorn, but a great deal larger. The wood is hard, compact, heavy, and of a deep red colour internally, which it gives out both to water and alcohol. It is an article of great commercial importance, being extensively used as a dye wood. It is imported in logs, that are afterwards chipped.-(The logwood tree, and the adventures of those that were formerly engaged in cutting ít, are described by Dampier; see his Voyages, vol. ii. part 2. p. 56. ed. 1~29.) The entries for home consumption, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1832, amounted to 10,973 tons a year. The duty of 4s. 6d. a ton on foreign logwood, and of 3s. on that from a British

plantation, produced, during the same 3 years, an annual revenue of 2,210. Of 14,853 tons of logwood imported in 1831, S,666 were from the British West Indies, 4,885 from Mexico, and the remainder principally from Hayti and Cuba. Its price in the London market in December, 1833, was;-Jamaica, 51. 15s. per ton; Honduras, 51. 10s. to 5l. 15s.; St. Domingo, 61. to 61. 68.; Campeachy, 71. 15s. to 81. 8s.

We borrow from the learned and able work of Dr. Bancroft, the following curious details with respect to the use of logwood in this country:-"Logwood seems to have been first brought to England soon after the accession of Queen Elizabeth: but the various and beautiful colours dyed from it proved so fugacious, that a general outcry against its use was soon raised; and an act of parliament was passed in the 23d year of her reign, which prohibited its use as a dye under severe penalties, and not only authorised but directed the burning of it, in whatever hands it might be found within the realm; and though this wood was afterwards sometimes clandestinely used (under the feigned name of black wood), it continued subject to this prohibition for nearly 100 years, or until the passing of the act 13 & 14 Chas. 2.; the preamble of which declares, that the ingenious industry of modern times hath taught the dyers of England the art of fixing colours made of logwood, alias blackwood, so as that, by experience, they are found as lasting as the colours made with any other sort of dyeing wood whatever; and on this ground it repeals so much of the statute of Elizabeth as related to logwood, and gives permission to import and use it for dyeing. Probably the solicitude of the dyers to obtain this permission, induced them to pretend that their industry had done much more than it really had, in fixing the colours of logwood; most of which, even at this time, are notoriously deficient in regard to their durability.”—(On Permanent Colours vol. ii. p. 340.)

[LONDON. See Supplement.-Am. Ed.]

LOUIS D'OR, a French gold coin, first struck in 1640. It was subsequently made by the French mint regulations equal to 24 livres, or 17. sterling. This, however, was under rating it in respect of silver; and hence, as every one preferred paying his debts in the over valued coin, silver became the principal currency of France, the gold coins being either sent to the melting-pot or exported. In Britain, the process was reversed. Gold having been, for a lengthened period, over-valued by our mint in respect to silver, it became the principal currency of the country.-(See vol. i. p. 384.)

M.

MACAO, a sea-port and settlement belonging to the Portuguese, on the island of the same name, at the mouth of the Canton river in China, in lat. 22° 12′ 45′′ N., lon, 113° 35′ E. The situation of Macao strikingly resembles that of Cadiz. It is built near the extremity of a peninsula projecting from the south-west corner of the island of Macao, to which it is joined by a long narrow neck. Across this isthmus, which is not more than 100 yards wide, a wall is erected, with a gate and guard-house in the middle for the Chinese soldiers. The greatest length of the peninsula belonging to the Portuguese, from N. E. to S. W., is under 3 miles, and its breadth under mile. The broadest part, to the north of the town, is flat, and of a light sandy soil; but is well cultivated, principally by Chinese, and produces all sorts of Asiatic and European culinary vegetables. Provisions are obtained from the Chinese part of the island or from the main land; and whenever the Portuguese do any thing to offend the Chinese authorities, the provisions are cut off till they are obliged quietly to submit. They are seldom allowed to pass beyond the narrow precincts of the territory assigned to them. The population of the peninsula may amount to from 12,000 to 13,000, of whom considerably more than half are Chinese. The functionaries belonging to the East India Company's factory at Canton resided here during the whole of the dead season. The Portuguese obtained possession of Macao in 1586. It was for a considerable period the seat of a great trade, carried on not only with China, but with Japan, Siam, CochinChina, the Philippine Islands, &c.; but for these many years past it has been of compara tively little importance, though it is probable, that if it belonged to a more enterprising and active people, it might still recover most of its former prosperity. The public administration is vested in a senate composed of the bishop, the judge, and a few of the principal inhabitants; but all real authority is in the hands of the Chinese mandarin resident in the town.

The Harbour is on the west side of the town, between it and Priest's Island; but the water in it not being sufficiently deep to admit large ships, they generally anchor in the roads on the other side of the peninsula, from 5 to 10 miles E.S.E. from the town. All vessels coming into the roads send their boats to the Portuguese Custom-house on the south side of the town.

When a ship arrives among the islands, she is generally boarded by a pilot, who carries her into Macao roads. As soon as she is anchored, the pilot proceeds to Macao to inform the mandarin of the nation she belongs to. If there be any women on board, application must be made to the bishop and senate, for leave to send them on shore, as they will not be permitted to proceed to Whampoa in the ship. As soon as the mandarin has made the necessary inquiries, he orders off a river pilot, who brings with him a chop or licence to pass the Bocca Tigris, or mouth of the Canton river, and carries the ship to Whampoa.

Trade of Macao-The Chinese regulations do not permit any vessels, except such as belong to Poruguese or Spaniards, of which there are very few, to trade at Macao. But the Portuguese inhabi

tants lend their names, for a trifling consideration, to such foreigners as wish to be associated with them for the purpose of trading from the port. Independently, however, of this, vessels of other nations usually experience no difficulty in obtaining the connivance of the Chinese officers to the landing or receiving of goods in the roads, by means of Portuguese boats. At intervals, indeed, the prohibitory regulation is strictly enforced; but we believe that there has been no instance of this for the last 3 years.

Vessels of other nations, if in distress, and not engaged in the contraband trade, are admitted into the harbour for repairs, on application to the senate.

Purt Charges.-The measurement duty paid by Spanish and Portuguese vessels is moderate. When a vessel has once paid the full amount, and is admitted on the list of registered ships belonging to the port (limited by the Chinese to 25), she is liable only to a third of the original charges, on every subsequent occasion of her entering, so long as she continues on the register. Portuguese vessels from Europe do not possess this privilege, unless they be registered as belonging to a morador of Macao.

The rates of measurement duty, which vary, as at Canton, (which see,) on three classes of vessels, are the following:Taels.

1st. On vessels of 154 covids and upwards, 6-223 per covid.

6-72
4.

These rates are nearly the same as those levied on Canton junks, trading with foreign countries, and ought, in fact, to be entirely so. The dimensions are taken and calculated in the same manner as at Canton (see vol i. p. 297.); but the Chinese, at both places, speak not of the covid, but of the chang of 10 covids. However, as this is only a decimal increase, it makes no difference in the method of calculation.

The following additional charges, to be calculated on the amount of measurement duty, are the same on every class of vessels, viz. 2 per cent. for inspectors.

8

10

17

for difference in weight by the treasury scales.
for loss in melting.

for making sycee.

Also the sum of 70 taels for the "public purse," or hoppo's treasury. In addition to these, the following are the charges levied by the boppo (collector of customs), or his deputy :

On a 1st class vessel from Europe, 250 taels; if belonging to Ma. cao or Manilla, 50 taels.

On a 24 class vessel from Europe, 240 taels; if belonging to Ma. Cao or Manilla, 40 taels.

On a 3d class vessel from Europe, 170 taels; if belonging to Macao or Manilla, 30 taels.

Ships importing rice are exempt from the measurement duty, and pay only 50 dollars, as fees to the procurador of Macao and the officers of his department.

Portuguese vessels from Europe, in addition to the measurement duty, have to pay to the Canton hong merchants a charge, termed by the Portuguese, Hanistagem, or Consoo charge, which is usually a matter of specific bargain, varying from about 200 dollars on a vessel of 200 tons, to 3,500 dollars and upwards on those of 500 tons and of larger sizes.

The charges on goods carried by the inner passage, between Canton and Macao, being generally less than those paid on goods to and from Whampoa; and the duties levied by the Portuguese, on articles of merchandise imported by vessels belonging to Macao, being very moderate; the Chinese are often led to engage in speculations on board the Macao vessels, the risk being so much less than in native junks. If the ship owners could manage their expenses so as to be satisfied with only the same freight as is charged by English vessels, it would probably induce many more Chinese to make remittances in this way.

Opium-The trade in opium is prohibited at Macao by the Chinese government, as well as throughout the rest of the empire. It was, nevertheless, formerly carried on to a great extent by the Portuguese moradores, or citizens, to the exclusion of all others, even Portuguese who were not citizens. But this restriction having occa. sioned the decline of the trade, it was abolished in 1823, when the senate passed a regulation throwing open the trade to all, without disEinction, whether Portuguese or foreigners; securing to the latter hospitality, and the utmost freedom in their speculations." At present, however, very little opium is imported, in consequence, it is said, of the heavy bribes demanded by the Chinese officers to insure

Duties and Charges on Goods landed at Macao.-Macao is a place without any manufacture or commerce of its own. Prices are, in consequence, generally dependent on those of Canton. Money is usually paid at 72 taels per 100 dollars.

It is a point of some interest to ascertain the internal duties and expenses to which goods landed at Macao are liable, before coming into the Chinese purchaser's hands at Canton. But the subject is so involved in mystery and uncertainty, the charges varying according to the quantity of goods laden in one boat, &c., that it is scarcely possible to arrive at any accurate information respecting it. We believe, however, that the following may be considered as a pretty close approximation to the real amount of charges incurred on cotton landed at Macao:

The hoppo's examiner charges 90 taels per boat of 1,000 piculs, the largest quantity allowed to be conveyed by a single boat; but the same charge of 90 taels is levied, although the boat should only contain 100 picule.

The duty on exporting goods from Canton to Macao is in some cases less, in other cases greater, than the Whampoa duty. Thus, nankeens to Macao pay 2 dollars per 100 less than to Whampoa. Most descriptions of silk piece goods also pay less duty. On the other hand, tea, paper, China ware, &c., pay a higher duty to Macao than to Whampoa.

For details as to the Weights, Measures, &c. used at Macao, see Canton.

For further particulars, see Hamilton's East India Gazetteer, art. Macao; Milburn's Orient. Com.; and the Anglo-Chinese Kalendar and Companion to the Aimanac, Macao, 1832.

MACE (Ger. Macis, Muskatenblüthe; Du. Foelie, Foely, Muscaatbloom; Fr. Macis, Fleur de muscade; It. Mace; Sp. Macio; Port. Maxcis, Flor de noz moscada; Lat. Mucis), a thin, flat, membranous substance, enveloping the nutmeg; of a lively, reddish yellow colour, a pleasant aromatic smell, and a warm, bitterish, pungent taste. Mace should be chosen fresh, tough, oleaginous, of an extremely fragrant smell, and a bright colour-the brighter the better. The smaller pieces are esteemed the best. The preferable mode of packing is in bales, pressed down close and firm, which preserves its fragrance and consistence. Account of the Quantity of Mace retained for Home Consumption, the Rates of Duty on it, and the total Revenue derived therefrom, since 1810.

A production is met with on the coast of Malabar, so like mace, that at first it is not easy to be distinguished; but it has not the least flavour of spiciness, and when chewed has a kind of resiny taste. Eight cwt. of mace are allowed to a ton.-(Milburn's Orient. Com.)

MADDER (Ger. Färberöthe; Du. Mee; Fr. Alizari, Garance; It. Robbia, Sp. Granza, Rubia; Rus. Mariona, Krap; Hind. Munjith), the roots of a plant (Rubia tinctorum), of which there are several varieties. They are long and slender, varying from the thickness of a goose-quill to that of the little finger. They are semi-transparent, of a reddish colour, have a strong smell, and a smooth bark. Madder is very extensively used in dyeing red; and though the colour which it imparts be less bright and beautiful than that of cochineal, it has the advantage of being cheaper and more durable. It is a native of the south of Europe, Asia Minor, and India; but has been long since introduced into and successfully cultivated in Holland, Alsace, Provence, &c. Its cultivation has been attempted in England, but without any beneficial result. Our supplies of madder were, for a lengthened period, almost entirely derived from Holland (Zealand); but large quantities are now imported from France and Turkey.

Dutch or Zealand madder is never exported except in a prepared or manufactured state. It is divided by commercial men into four qualities, distinguished by the terms mull, gamene, ombro, and crops. The roots being dried in stoves, the first species, or mull, consists of a powder formed by pounding the very small roots, and the husk or bark of the larger ones. It is comparatively low priced, and is employed for dyeing cheap dark colours. A second pounding separates about a third part of the larger roots; and this being sifted and packed separately, is sold here under the name of gamene, or gemeens. The third and last pounding comprehends the interior, pure, and bright part of the roots, and is sold in Holland under the name of kor kraps, but is here simply denominated crops. Sometimes, however, after the mull has been separated, the entire residue is ground, sifted, and packed together under the name of onberoofde, or ombro. It consists of about one third of gamene, and two thirds of crops. Prepared madder should be kept dry. It attracts the moisture of the atmosphere, and is injured by it.

The Smyrna or Levant madder (Rubia peregrina), the alizari or lizary of the modern Greeks, is cultivated in Bœotia, along the border of lake Copais, and in the plain of Thebes. It also grows in large quantities at Kurdar near Smyrna, and in Cyprus. The madder of Provence has been raised from seeds carried from the latter in 1761. Turkey madder affords, when properly prepared, a brighter colour than that of Zealand. It is, however, imported in its natural state, or as roots: the natives, by whom it is chiefly produced, not having industry or skill sufficient to prepare it like the Zealanders, by pounding and separating the skins and inferior roots; so that the finer colouring matter of the larger roots being degraded by the presence of that derived from the former, a peculiar process is required to evolve that beautiful Turkey red which is so highly and deservedly esteemed.-(Thomson's Chemistry; Bancroft on Colours, vol. ii. pp. 221–278.: see also Beckmann, Hist. of Invent. vol. iii. art. Madder.)

In France, madder is prepared nearly in the same manner as in Zealand. The following instructive details as to its cultivation, price, &c. in Provence, were obligingly furnished to us by an English gentleman intimately acquainted with such subjects, who visited Avignon in the autumn of 1829:

"This town (Avignon) is the centre of the madder country, the cultivation of which was introduced here about the middle of the 18th century, and, with the exception of Alsace, is still confined (in France) to this department (Vaucluse). The soil appears to be better adapted for its cultivation here than any where else, and it has long been the source of great wealth to the cultivators. Of late years, however, the prices have fluctuated so much, that many proprietors have abandoned, or only occasionally cultivated this root, so that the crop, which was formerly estimated to average 500,000 quintals, is now supposed not to exceed from 300,000 to 400,000.

"The root is called alizari, and the powder (made from it) garance. The plant is raised from seed, and requires 3 years to come to maturity. It is, however, often pulled in 18 months, without in. jury to the quality; the quantity only is smaller. A rich soil is necessary for its successful cultivation; and when the soil is impreg nated with alkaline matter, the root acquires a red colour-in other cases it is yellow. The latter is preferred in England, from the long habit of using Dutch madder, which is of this colour; but in France the red sells at 2 fr. per quintal higher, being used for the Turkey red dye.

"It is calculated that when wheat sells at 20 fr. per hectolitre, alizari should bring 35 fr. per quintal (poids de table), to give the same remuneration to the cultivator. That is, wheat 63s. per Eng. quar. ter, and alizari 34 per Eng. cwt. The price has, however, been frequently as low as 22 fr. per quintal.

"Prices undergo a revolution every 7 or 8 years, touching the mi nimum of 22, and rising as high as 100 fr. As in every similar case, the high price induces extensive cultivation, and this generally produces its full effect 4 or 5 years after. The produce of Alsace, which is inferior both in quantity and quality to that of Vaucluse, is gene rally sold in Strasburgh market.

"England employs both the root and the powder, according to the purpose for which they are intended. The Dutch madder is more employed by the woollen dyers, and the French by the cotton dyers and printers.

"In making purchases of garance it is essential to employ a house of confidence, because the quality depends entirely upon the care and honesty of the agent. The finest is produced from the roots after being cleaned and stripped of their bark. The second by grinding

the roots without cleaning. A third by mixing the bark of the first while grinding; and so on to any degree of adulteration.

The price of alizari in the country, which was only 25 fr. in July, is now, (November, 1829) at 36 fr., and is expected to be at 40 fr. very shortly. The crop being deficient both here and in Holland, and the certainty of its being also deficient next year, added to the small quantity existing in England, give reason to believe that the price will reach 60 fr. before many months, and will continue to advance for a year or two more.

"The quintals above mentioned are of 100 lbs. poids de tablethe weight in general use over the south of France, and even in Marseilles.-This weight is different in the different provinces, varying from 22 to 25 per cent, lighter than the poids metrique. At Avignon, 124 lbs. p. de table 50 kilog., consequently 126 lbs. are equal to 1 cwt. Eng. At the exchange of 25-50, the cwt, costs (including 11s. for freight, duty, and all charges till delivered in London or Liver pool) 61s. or 60s.

"It is considered that only one sixth or one seventh of the present crop remains for sale.

"Madder does not deteriorate by keeping, provided it be kept dry.
"Compte simul.-
FT.

Cost of I quintal of roots in the country
Expenses in do.

35

:

2

Account of the Quantity of Madder and Madder Roots respectively entered for Home Consumption each Year since 1820; with the Rates of Duty, and the Produce of the Duty on each.-(From Papers published by Board of Trade.)

Of the imports of prepared madder in 1831, amounting to 43,935 ewt., 22,637 were brought from France, and 18,726 from Holland. Of the madder root imported the same year, amounting to 52,449 ewt., 23,627 were from France, 23,833 from Turkey, 2,570 from the East Indies (munjeet), and 2.377 from Italy.

The duty on madder is now reduced to 2s. a cwt., and on roots to 6d. a cwt. and their price, duty included, in the London market, in December, 1833, was as follows:

1 14 0-1 16 0 bond. Madder, the produce of Europe, is not to be imported for home consumption except in British ships, or in ships of the country of which it is the produce, or from which it is imported, under forfeit. ure of the same, and 1001. by the master of the vessel.-(3 & 4 Will 4. c. 52. sect. 58.)

MADRAS, the principal emporium on the coast of Coromandel, or western shore of the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 13° 5' N., lon. 80° 21′ E. It is the seat of government of the second presidency of the British possessions in India, having under it a territory of 154,000 square miles, with a population, according to a recent census, of 15,000,000, paying a gross annual revenue of above 5,000,000l. sterling. The town is situated in the Carnatic province-a low, sandy, and rather sterile country. It is without port or harbour, lying close upon the margin of an open roadstead, the shores of which are constantly beat by a heavy surf. Besides these disadvantages, a rapid current runs along the coast; and it is within the sphere of the hurricanes or typhoons, by which it is occasionally visited. In every respect, indeed, it is a very inconvenient place for trade, and its commerce is consequently greatly inferior to that of either Calcutta or Bombay. It has been in possession of the English 192 years, being founded by them in 1639. In 1823, the number of houses was ascertained to be 26,786; which allowing 6 inhabitants to each, makes the total population about 160,000. Fort Saint George is a strong and handsome fortification, lying close to the shore. The Black Town of Madras, as it is called, stands to the north and eastward of the fort, from which it is separated by a spacious esplanade. Here reside the native, Armenian, and Portuguese merchants, with many Europeans unconnected with the government. Like most other Indian towns, it is irregular and confused, being a mixture of brick and bamboo houses. Madras, like Calcutta and Bombay, is subject to English law; having a Supreme Court of Judicature, the judges of which are named by the Crown, and are altogether independent of the local government, and the East India Company.

In Madras roads, large ships moor in from 7 to 9 fathoms, with the flagstaff of the fort bearing W.N.W., 2 miles from shore. From October to January is generally considered the most unsafe season of the year, in consequence of the prevalence, during that interval, of storms and typhoons. On the 15th of October the flagstaff is struck, and not erected again until the 15th of December; during which period, a ship coming into the roads, or, indeed, any where within soundings on the coast of Coromandel (reckoned from Point Palmyras to Ceylon), vitiates her insurance, according to the conditions of the policies of all the insurance offices in India. In the fort there is a light-house, 90 feet above the level of the sea, and which may be seen from the deck of a large ship, at 17 miles' distance, or from the mast-head at a distance of 26 miles. The cargo boats used for crossing the surf, called Mussula boats, are large and light; made of very thin planks sewed together, with straw in the seams, instead of caulking, which it is supposed might render them too stiff. When within the influence of the surf, the coxswain stands up, and beats time in great agitation with his voice and feet, while the rowers work their oars backwards, until overtaken by a strong surf curling up, which sweeps the boat along with frightful violence. Every oar is then plied forward with the utmost vigour to prevent the wave from taking the boat back as it recedes; until at length, by a few successive surfs, the boat is thrown high and dry upon the beach. The boats belonging to ships in the roads sometimes proceed to the back of the surf, and wait for the country boats from the beach to come to them. When it is dangerous to have communication with the shore, a flag is displayed at the beach-house, which stands near the landing-place, as a caution.

The fishermen and lower classes employed on the water, use a species of floating machine of a very simple construction, named a catamaran. It is formed of 2 or 3 logs of light wood, 8 or 10 feet in length, lashed together, with a small piece of wood inserted between them to serve as a stempiece. When ready for the water, they hold generally 2 men, who with their paddles impel themselves through the surf, to carry waters, or refreshments in small quantities, to ships, when no boat can venture out. They wear a pointed cap made of matting, where they secure the letters, which take no damage. The men are often washed off the catamaran, which they regain by swimming, unless interrupted by a shark. Medals are given to such catamaran men as distinguish themselves by saving persons in danger.