terially affect the general preponderance of English-speaking people; and at the time of the Revolution all the colonies which joined in forming the new nation were subject to the English government. The United States, therefore, became essentially another English nation, in which the English language was generally used, and by a custom, general if not universal, constitutions, laws, public documents, and records are required to be in the English language.

English is therefore the national language; and while it may not always be easy for older persons to learn to speak the language readily, the necessity of being able to speak it has been imposed by law upon a foreigner who wishes to be naturalized. The naturalization law of 1906 declares the general rule, subject to some exceptions, that an applicant for naturalization must be able to speak the English language. As a foreigner is required to live here five years before he can be naturalized, the law assumes that he will spend some part of this time in learning to speak the English language as a part of his preparation to become a citizen.

THE STATES.

The American Nation is composed of states united under one central government. Each state is in its local affairs independent of other states, and in most respects independent of the general government.

Each of the thirteen states from which the Union was formed was, prior to the Revolution of 1776, a colony or province under the dominion of the British government. Each colony had a local government partly dependent on the Crown, and partly independent. The boundaries of the colonies were reasonably well defined, and each colony was substantially an independent com

munity. Colonies frequently treated with each other as if they were neighboring states, and they possessed, even in those early days, the general characteristics of states. It seems perfectly logical, therefore, that the framers of the Declaration of Independence should have asserted that the colonies, which united in the Declaration, "are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states," with all the rights, powers, duties, and obligations of independent states. Thus, on the adoption of the Declaration each state became independent, not only as against the English government, but as against all the other states. Each state was in effect a nation by itself.

For the purpose of achieving the independence which had been declared, some kind of a union of the states was necessary; for it was manifest that no colony which had suddenly become a state could alone maintain the contest for the independence which had been declared. So the colonies, having declared themselves to be states, formed a union, naming it "The United States of America," and adopted an instrument which was called the "Articles of Confederation." This instrument set forth the conditions on which the Union was formed, its purposes, its powers, and the relation of the states to each other.

The new states, like the former colonies, were jealous of their individual rights, and in the Articles it was expressly provided that "each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress Assembled." The association of the states was declared to be a "league of friendship" for their common defense, the states "binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever."

The Articles of Confederation are given at length in another part of this book (see post, 91), and should be consulted for the powers and limitations imposed on the states and on the Congress. For the most part the states reserved their independence, and it was manifest that the Articles did not create a nation in the sense in which we now understand that term. It was a union of independent states for a common purpose, but each state reserved so many powers to itself that there was little real authority in the central government, which acted through a congress of delegates from the several states. Each state was practically independent, with a government divided into the usual three departments,-legislative, executive, and judicial,—and maintained its own system of internal laws and policies. The right of naturalization was one of the rights which each state exercised for itself during those earlier years.

The Articles of Confederation have been called a "rope of sand." Each state could take part in the government for the time being, or decline to do so; and the powers of Congress could not be exercised except by the consent of the states. The Articles created a moral obligation, but lacked the essential powers which every real government should possess. The necessity of the situation compelled some sort of union, and the patriotism of the people was sufficient to keep even a weak government alive during the stress of the war and until the independence of the United States had been acknowledged by Great Britain, resulting in a treaty of peace concluded on the 3d of September, 1783.

The weakness of the union under the Articles of Confederation was admitted on all sides, and statesmen soon began to consider plans for the formation of a more perfect union and the establishment of a real nation. This discussion resulted in the preparation of the CONSTITU

TION OF THE UNITED STATES, which was adopted in 1787 by a convention of delegates from the several states, of which George Washington was president. The Constitution was soon ratified by a sufficient number of states, and was put into operation, and a new government organized in 1789, George Washington having been inaugurated the first President of the United States on the 30th of April of that year.

A real government was organized, and the United States became a nation. The states surrendered to the Federal government all the powers needed for the maintenance of an independent nation and for the preservation of national life, and these powers have been asserted and maintained from time to time as emergencies have arisen. But the states still reserved a large measure of independence, and by the 10th Amendment to the Constitution, which was proposed in 1789, soon after the new government was organized, and which went into operation in 1791, it was expressly declared that "the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states, respectively, or to the people." (See post, 155)

The nation has a Constitution of its own, and each state has a Constitution. The relation of the state Constitution to the Federal Constitution is declared in the provision in the latter that "the Constitution and laws of the United States, which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding."

The national Constitution relates primarily to the government of the nation; but in some respects it relates to the government of the states, and limits or restrains some

of the powers which the states may exercise. Each state has its own Constitution, which is subordinate to the national Constitution on questions relating to national affairs and the exercise of Federal powers; but in general a state Constitution is independent and supreme. It provides the machinery for the government of the state, defines the powers and duties of the several departments of government, and is intended to regulate and control all local affairs. In these respects, and where not controlled by the Federal Constitution, each state is substantially an independent nation.

It should not be forgotten that the state governments are much older than the Federal government; older in colonial forms which preceded the state governments, and older in the exercise of their powers as states. All the thirteen original states had written Constitutions, and government was carried on under them in a regular manner, before the national Constitution was framed, except Rhode Island and Connecticut, whose governments were continued under early royal charters until some time subsequent to the adoption of the Federal Constitution. These state constitutions and charters continued to be the foundation of state governments after the national government was established, and the adoption of the Federal Constitution did not affect these states and their Constitutions or governments, except as state powers were surrendered to the Federal government for national purposes.

So far as the people are concerned generally, they look to the state governments for the control and protection of their affairs and the regulation of the common concerns of life. On the contrary, the scope of the national government, so far as the daily life of the people is concerned, is quite limited. The Postoffice Department is the only one which affects all the people in their common affairs;