every community has its postoffice and mail service, with postmasters, carriers, and other postal officials. No other department comes in contact with the people to the same extent and in the same visible manner. The people cannot, however, forget the Treasury Department, for they are constantly reminded of its existence by the money they use. The great majority of our citizens rarely see an official connected with this department, but, by reason of its supervision and management of the money system of the country, it makes itself felt in a peculiar manner in the daily life of the people. The old days of state money, or money authorized by the state, have practically passed away, and the nation asserts its presence and its power in all our transactions requiring the use of money. We acknowledge the supremacy of the nation when, as in many formal business transactions, we promise to pay the debt we assume in lawful money of the United States. Whether the money we have is in United States notes, gold certificates, silver certificates, national bank notes, or coins of various kinds, we receive and use it without question except to ascertain its apparent face value, and not thinking of its origin, knowing that all of it rests on the pledge and security of the national government. While the government raises revenue by internal taxes, by tariff duties, sales of public land, and by fees imposed for services performed by several administrative departments, these features of government are, for the most part, of limited application. They do not affect all the people, but only particular classes. We go about our daily business, and attend to the various concerns of life, scarcely realizing that there is a Federal government. Not so as to the state; we may not know the terms of its Constitution, nor be familiar with many of its statutes, but we live and work under its shield. We are in constant touch with state education, state charities and benev

olences, religious organizations authorized by the state, state courts, state taxation in some form, either indirect or through municipalities, state enforcement of laws. against crime, and the preservation of peace and good order; and in the long list of duties and obligations by which we assert the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, we appreciate the great benefits derived from being members of the state whose protection and privileges we enjoy. We do not forget the nation, nor our obligations to it; we cherish its greatness and will defend its honor; but it is farther from us than the state, and it is not singular that as citizens we should remember that the state is the original source of all authority and protection, both in the nation itself and in the community in which we live.

State Governments.

The forms of government in the several states are quite similar. Each state has a governor and other executive and administrative officers, a legislature, and a judicial system. The governor is the chief executive officer; the legislature is the lawmaking power; and judges and courts are provided to consider questions of public interest, and also suits and controversies between citizens. The Constitution of the United States guarantees to each state a republican form of government, which means a representative government administered by officers chosen directly or indirectly by the people.

I have already pointed out that under the national Constitution the people vote directly for only one class of officers, namely, Representatives in Congress, though indirectly for Senators and for the President and VicePresident; but in the states the election of officers by the people is the rule, and their choice in any other way is the exception. Thus popular government prevails in the

states; that is, a government in which, for the most part, the people by their votes select the officers who shall administer their public affairs.

The length of time an officer may serve varies among different offices and among the states. It will not be practicable here to point out these differences, but it may be said that, as a general rule, terms of office are short, except of judicial officers; and as to these it is believed that a longer term ensures greater permanency in judicial administration.

The

The legislature possesses the lawmaking power, which is the highest power in the state. The people govern themselves by laws made by their own chosen representatives; and in a popular government all the people are presumed to consent to be governed in this manner. power of the governor to veto laws, and the power possessed by the courts to declare laws unconstitutional, are usually a sufficient check on unwise or invalid legislation. A few state legislatures meet every year, but most of them only once in two years.

Municipal Government.

Government in a state is not all administered by the state itself, but in some states a considerable part of the government is delegated to municipalities, like counties, cities, towns, villages, school districts, and other divisions of the state. In many states these local subdivisions have governments which are themselves almost independent,— not independent of the state, but independent as against other smaller municipalities.

Counties.

In many states, county governments are important factors in public affairs. Counties, however, do not usually have the powers of government given to a city.

County officers are of a different class, and are chosen for a different purpose. There is no chief executive officer, like a mayor, but in some states there is a local legislative body which makes the laws for the county on certain specified subjects. In some states the county has its own system of taxation, education, police, highways, and charities.

There are many variations of county government in the several states, and the reader will need to consult the statutes of his particular state for regulations concerning the administration of county affairs, and the powers and obligations of the county in relation to the state government.

Cities.

Cities have charters which confer on them powers of government, and define the scope and limitations of the powers which may be exercised, and the manner of exercising these powers. The city has a mayor, who is its chief executive officer, and answers to the governor in state affairs. The city also has a legislative body, and local executive and judicial officers. It has the power to impose taxes, maintain schools, charities, streets and highways, public health, police, and various other features. of public affairs. A city, acting within its charter, is a smaller state. A city is, nevertheless, an essential part of the state; for its people, while governing themselves in relation to various local affairs, are members of the state, take part in elections of state officers and in other state affairs, and occupy the same relation to the state as persons who do not live in a city.

Towns.

Speaking generally, the most common form of local government is that provided for in towns. Towns, or

townships, are the ordinary subdivisions of the state, and for the most part may be deemed the unit of local government. In the early colonial days in New England, the people usually expressed their will on public affairs at the town meeting. Questions of local administration and the election of officers were there decided by the inhabitants after full and free discussion and consideration. The town meeting in its best days was a substantial illustration of a democracy in local government. The people ruled by a majority of votes. As population increased and the scope of public business became enlarged, many questions were withdrawn from the consideration of the body of inhabitants, and committed to local officers, either individually or as members of town boards. The result is that the early democratic character of the town meeting has been seriously modified,—especially as to the ordinary details of local government; but many matters are still under the control of the inhabitants of the town, and on several subjects expenditures cannot be made by local officers except as authorized by a vote of the people.

Town governments vary in different states, but, in general, each town has officers who administer its affairs, regulate its local policies, determine the amount of local taxation, and the purposes for which taxes may be raised and the proceeds expended, including schools, police, highways, charities, public health, and other subjects. Towns are usually subordinate state agencies, created primarily for purposes of local government; and the state confers on them certain powers of local legislation and administration. In some cases they are practically independent, except as against the state; in others, they are part of a county system, and local administration is worked out by means of the county government and as a part of it.

Villages are usually parts of towns, with a special local government, sometimes including parts of two or more