and education is the means to its attainment. "It is the percipient mind that is to be educated and developed in all its powers, for it is the mind that is to determine all”. 1)

Dr. Curtis has already shown that Clarke must rather be considered a follower than an opponent of Locke. 2) In Chapter III. we shall see how closely Clarke followed Locke in many respects, and how few are the points where their opinions diverge. Clarke quotes "the learned and judicions Mr. Locke" frequently, 3) and only once with any degree of disapproval. *) Yet Clarke's system, although in the main agreeing with that of Locke, is by no means identical with it. Clarke lays more stress than Locke, on the nature and difference of things as the foundation of moral distinctions, and less on the will of a divine lawgiver. 5) He differs from Locke with regard to the freedom of the will, denying that the will always follows the "last judgment of the understanding"; 6) and he takes more positive ground than Locke in regard to the "natural immortality of the soul". 7)

Samuel Clarke was born at Norwich in the year 1675. In the year 1691 he endered the University of Cambridge,

1) Curtis' "Locke's eth. philos.", p. 98.

2) Ib. p. 138. Comp. Jodl, "Gesch. d. Ethik" Bd. I. C. V.

3) "Nat. Rel." pp. IV., 34, 45, 123.

167, 180, 229, 232, 243.

"Letter to Dodwell", pp. 161,

4) "Leibniz and Clarke" pp. 9, 11. 5) Nat. Rel. pp. 68, 70, 84, 88, 89. 6) "Being and Att. of God" p. 93. "Letters concerning liberty and necessity"; "Remarks on a Bk. entitled, a phil. enquiry concerning human liberty".

2) "Letter to Dodwell"; and the consequent discussion with Collins. 8) Our chief authority for the account here given is the life of Clarke by Benj. Hoadly, Bishop of Salisbury, prefixed to Vol. I of the folio edition

where he remained during some seven years, and where he is said to have distinguished himself by "his thirst after true knowledge, and his great capacity both for discovering and improving it". 1) Here he became acquainted with the Cartesian philosophy, but also with the recent discoveries of Newton, then only known to a few. Wishing to spread the knowledge of Newton's physical discoveries, in the year 1697 Clarke brought out a new Latin translation of the Cartesian Robault's "La Physique", with notes from a Newtonian standpoint. 2) This was Clarke's first work; it passed through several editions, and was used as a text-book at Cambridge until superseded by Newton's own writings. Although continuing to take a keen interest in scientific work, Clarke decided to enter the Church, and devoted himself chiefly to theological studies, especially to the Hebrew and Greek of the Old and New Testaments, and the writings of the early Church Fathers. In the year 1699 he published "Three practical essays on baptism, confirmation and repentance", and in the same year appeared his first attack on the Deists, in which he attempts to refute Toland's criticism of some of the apocryphal gospels. 3) Two years later appeared the first part of his "Paraphrase on the four Evangelists". 4) Soon after, through the influence of

of Clarke's works. Dublin 1734. See also Encycl. Britt., Art. "Clarke", by Prof. Flint. Also "Forty Sermons on doctrinal and practical subjects selected from the works of the Rev. Sam'l Clarke, by the Rev. Sam'l Clapham; to which is prefaced a sketch of his life". Lond. 1806. Whiston's "Historical memoirs of the life of the Rev. Dr. Sam'l Clarke", Lond. 1730, we have been unable to consult.

1) Hoadly, "Life of Clarke" p. V.

2) "Jacobi Rohaulti Physica, Latine vertit, recensuit, et uberioribus jam Annotationibus ex illustrissimi Isaaci Newtoni Philosophia maximam partem haustis, amplificavit et ornavit S. Clarke".

3) "Some reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor, or the defence of Milton's life, which relates to the writings of the Primitive Fathers and the Canon of the New Testament". Lond. 1699.

4) "A Paraphrase on the four Evangelists, where for the clearer unterstanding of the Sacred History the whole text and paraphrase are printed in separate columns, over against each other. Together with critical notes on the more difficult passages".

Dr. John Moore, Bishop of Norwich, whose Chaplain he had been since leaving the University, he received the Rectory of Drayton. In 1704 the trustees of the Boyle Lecture Fund appointed him to deliver the Lecture for that year. Clarke seemed to think the objects of the "Foundation") could not be better furthered than by proving the "Existence and Attributes of God", which he considered the foundation of all true religion. Thus appeared his "Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God".") Re-appointed the next year, he preached another series of eight sermons, his "Discourse concerning the unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion".") These are Clarke's chief works, and form the ground of whatever claim he has to recognition as a philosopher. They were at first published separately, but afterwards together; passed through several editions in Clarke's lifetime; were each time carefully revised and altered by himself; and thus, of all his philosophical works, they are most to be relied upon in any study of Clarke's philosophy.

Again, through his unfailing friend Bishop Moore, Clarke was appointed Rector of St. Bennet's Paul's Wharf, and some time after was made Chaplain to the Queen and Rector of St. James' Westminster. In the year 1706 the learned nonjuror Henry Dodwell 4) published an "Epistolary Discourse", in which he endeavoured to prove that the soul of man is not naturally immortal but receives immortality upon baptism. Not only Dissenters, but moderate churchmen and even Dodwell's

1) These lectures were founded in 1691 by the will of Robert Boyle, and were intended for "the demonstration of the truth of the Christian Religion against Atheists, Theists, Pagans, Jews and Mohammedans".

2) "A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God; more particularly in answer to Mr. Hobbes, Spinoza, and their followers. Wherein the Notion of Liberty is stated; and the Possibility and Certainty of it proved, in opposition to Necessity and Fate". By Samuel Clarke D. D. Rector of St. James' Westminster.

3) "A Discourse concerning the unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian Revelation".

4) Of Dodwell, Gibbon says, "his learning was immense, and his skill in employing facts was equal to his learning".

own friends were scandalized at such absurdities. Among other serious protests against these opinions, appeared Clarke's "Letter to Mr. Dodwell",1) in which he endeavoured to show from the authority of the Fathers as well as from Reason, the weakness of Dodwell's position. Dodwell found a strong supporter in Anthony Collins, who denied on general philosophical ground the immortality of the soul and the freedom of the will. Clarke replied to him in four letters, with arguments Bishop Hoadly declares "comprehend all that the ancients had said well, and add still more evidence than ever clearly appeared before". Shortly after his appointment as Rector of St. James' Westminster, for the degree of Doctor of Divinity at Cambridge, Clarke defended two very characteristic theses. The are as follows,-(1.) "Nullum Fidei Christianae Dogma, in S. Scripturis traditum, est Rectae Rationi dissentaneum”. (2.) "Sine Actionum humanarum Libertate nulla potest esse Religio". These opinions, however much they might please latudinarian Churchmen such as Whiston and Hoadly, were not received by all with the same approval, and when in 1712 Clarke published his "Scriptural Doctrine of the Trinity", he was suspected of heresy and complaint was laid before the Lower House of Convocation. Clarke gave certain explanations, and the matter dropped, but among the more strict Churchmen he continued to be regarded with suspicion as altogether too rationalistic to be strictly orthodox.

Clarke, in common with most theologians of his day, was often engaged in controversy, and here his great logical skill generally gave him a considerable advantage over his opponents. His "Being and Attributes" was strongly criticised in a series of five letters, written in the Winter of 1713-14 by Butler, then a student in a Dissenting Academy at Tewkesbury. Clarke wrote five letters in reply, and Butler seems to have been satisfied with the answers, although he confesses he does not understand Clarke's theory of time and space. In the year

1) “A letter to Mr. Dodwell, wherein all the arguments in his Epistolary Discourse against the immortality of the soul are particularly answered, and the judgment of the Fathers concerning the matter truly represented".

1715, Collins published his "Philosophical enquiry concerning Human Liberty", a most powerful defence of the necessitarian position. To this Clarke replied in his "Remarks", 1) and this short reply, together with his "Letters concerning Liberty and Necessity",") contains his chief contribution to the literature of this time-honoured subject. In the Autumn of the same year began Clarke's famous controversy with Leibniz,) which lasted until broken off by the death of Leibniz in the following year. The controversy was begun by Leibniz at the request of the Princess of Wales, Caroline of Ansbach, and by her Clarke was chosen as the Englishman best fitted to answer the great German philosopher. In his first letter Leibniz attacked Locke and English philosophy in general, and Sir Isaac Newton in particular. Clarke as a friend and adherent of Newton, defended him on every point. In subsequent letters subjects more strictly philosophical, as the Freedom of the Will, were introduced. After five letters and as many replies had been exchanged, further controversy was prevented by the death of Leibniz. This was the last of Clarke's philosophical

writings.

Among his other works may be mentioned a folio edition of Caesar's Commentaries, with notes; and the first twelve books of Homer's Iliad with a translation and critical notes. Of these Martineau says,-"If these editions had appeared before the age of Bentley, they might have had some prospect of more durable reputation; but the rapid advance of modern scholarship has left them far behind, and they now remain chiefly as witnesses of the large and liberal culture of a mind

1) "Remarks upon a Book entitled a Philosophical Enquiry concerning Human Liberty". Collins, perhaps fearing persecution for heresy, did not reply until after Clarke's death in 1729, when he published his "Liberty and Necessity".

2) "Letters to Dr. Clarke concerning Liberty and Necessity; from a Gentleman of the University of Cambridge". Lond. 1717.

3) "A collection of papers which passed between the late learned Mr. Leibniz, and Dr. Clarke, in the years 1715 and 1716, relating to the principles of Natural Philosophy and Religion". Lond. 1717.