Government" was organized and set up, "until terms of union with the United States of America have been negotiated and agreed upon." The queen submitted under protest, and the government was recognized by the United States minister and other foreign representatives. Commissioners were sent to negotiate a treaty of annexation with the United States. Such a treaty was negotiated and sent to the Senate for confirmation February 15, but was not acted upon before the expiration of Harrison's term of office. On March 6, President Cleveland withdrew the treaty, and then sent a special commissioner to Hawaii to investigate and report. Shortly after the commissioner reached Hawaii he declared the protectorate established by the American minister at an end, and ordered the United States flag, which had been raised over the government building, to be removed.

On the return of the commissioner to the United States with his report, a new minister was sent out with instructions intended to restore, if possible, the queen to her former position, on the ground that it was the illegal use of United States troops which had brought success to the revolutionists. Late in the year Congress requested information and papers relative to the matter from the President, which he sent, practically acknowledging the failure to settle the difficulties by diplomatic means, and leaving affairs in the hands of Congress. The year closed with little further light upon the matter, and nothing accomplished.

430. Close of the Columbian Exposition. (1893.) The success of the Exposition at Chicago (sect. 423) far exceeded

1 United States troops had previously been used in Hawaii to preserve order in 1874, and during the former administration of President Cleveland in 1889. Annexation also was nearly accomplished in 1854, under President Pierce,

anticipations. A foreign visitor expresses the general opinion in saying: "Only those who have seen it can justly appreciate how far this latest of international exhibitions has surpassed all its predecessors in size, in splendor, and in greatness, both of conception and of execution." Probably the most striking feature of the exhibition was the excellent situation combining land and water advantages. The manner in which these features were utilized was most admirable, and the architectural skill displayed in the buildings, united great beauty of design and execution with adaptation to required needs. The attendance was over twenty-seven millions, more than double that of the Centennial Exhibition (sect. 381).

CHAPTER XX.

ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND LITERARY CONDITIONS.

REFERENCES.

Note. The volumes of Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia contain the most accessible accounts of recent events; the "Record of Current Events" in the Review of Reviews is a brief monthly chronicle; the annual issues of the Tribune and World Almanacs (New York) are rich in political, statistical, and general information.

Biographies. -American Men of Letters Series. F. H. Underwood, H. W. Longfellow, J. G. Whittier; W. J. Linton, J. G. Whittier; S. Longfellow, H. W. Longfellow.

Special. Immigration, Urban Population: Compendium of Eleventh Census; Harper's Monthly, lxix. 118; The Nation, xli. 46, lii. 333, 352, 401, liii, 209. Irrigation: Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia, 1889, pp. 451464; Review of Reviews, viii. 394; The Nation, xlvii. 390; The Forum, xii. 740; North American Review, cl. 370; Harper's Magazine, lxxvii. 233. Forest Reservations: Century Magazine, xlvi. 792; Review of Reviews, viii. 63. Natural Gas: Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia, 1886, p. 366. T. a. Edison, and Electricity: Review of Reviews, viii. 35-62. Inland Commerce and Transportation: United States Treasury Report on Inland Commerce, 1891; Century Magazine, xxxviii. 353; The Forum, xii. 729; Review of Reviews, viii. 536. The New South: H. W. Grady, Writings and Speeches, "The New South"; The Forum, xiii. 66, 673. Pacific Coast: The Forum, xii. 410; Review of Reviews, viii. 524. Education: R. G. Boone, Education in the United States. Literature: M. C. Tyler, History of American Literature (1607-1765); C. F. Richardson, American Literature (1607– 1885); E. C. Stedman and E. M. Hutchinson, Library of American Literature, 11 vols. 8vo. ; E. C. Stedman, Poets of America. Learned Societies and Libraries: R. G. Boone, Education in the United States, chap. xvi. Newspapers: F. Hudson, History of Journalism in America; North American Review, cl. 197, 364; The Forum, ix. 198; Century Magazine, xl. 260.

431. Interstate Emigration; Foreign Immigration. During the years which we have been considering, many important movements have been going on in the country, some so silently as hardly to attract notice, while others have claimed attention from time to time. Among the most important of these has been the great westward march of emigrants within the country, made possible by the construction not only of the great trunk railroads, but also of the numerous branch roads, which, like small arteries, have carried population far and wide. This native emigration has in the main been along the parallels of latitude.

A greater movement has also been in progress. It is the habit of historians, and rightly so, to speak of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as the "period of colonization "; but the colonization of the last half of the nineteenth century has been on a vastly greater scale. Since 1820 there have been landed in the United States over sixteen millions of immigrants, more than one-third of these having come during the ten years ending June 30, 1890. For the last few years the average annual increase of population from this source has been over half a million. Most of these immigrants have been of great advantage to the country, and they have adapted themselves to their new conditions of life in a wonderful manner, but their influence on the country of their adoption has not had that attention which it deserves. Settling, as many of them have done, in communities, mostly in the western states, preserving their language, and to some extent, their customs, it was impossible for the social, political, and industrial conditions of life in America not to be modified by their influence. To a certain degree this statement is true of every part of the country where foreign immigrants have settled.

1 From 1820 to June 30, 1893, 16,443,823.

URBAN POPULATION; IRRIGATION.

401

432. Urban Population. Another movement which has been silently going on is the increase of the population living in cities and built-up towns'; according to the census of 1890 nearly one-third of the total population being urban (Appendix vi.). This increase has been almost wholly in the North Atlantic States 1 and the Northern Central States,2 and it is due to several causes, chiefly the rapid extension of manufactures and commerce, both of which require compact living. In the South and in most of the western states the urban population is relatively small.

433. Irrigation; Forest Reservations. West of a line nearly corresponding to the 100th meridian west from Greenwich the territory of the United States, except in northern California and the western portions of Oregon and Washington, is arid or semi-arid, the natural rainfall not being sufficient to support agricultural crops. For a long period a large part of this region was spoken of as the "Great American Desert," and the "bad lands," and it was regarded as uninhabitable. The example of the Mormons in Utah, and of a few others elsewhere, showed that water was the only thing needed, and that if this could be introduced, the problem of cultivating and inhabiting the arid region was solved. Already large tracts of California, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, and other portions of the region have been brought into rich cultivation by means of more or less extensive systems of irrigation. The extent of territory which the existing water supplies will irrigate is as yet very uncertain.

The acts of Congress establishing the Yosemite, the

1 The New England States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania; to which should be added Delaware and Maryland.

2 Of these it has been mostly in Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Missouri.