SECTION VII. LITERATURE. HISTORY OF WRITING. Amongst the various arts and sciences which have from time to time contributed to the improvement and advancement of society, there is, perhaps, none which demands more justly the admiration and respect of mankind, none which, in point of utility and excellence, will at all admit of comparison with the art of Writing. outlines, was still very troublesome, the Egyptians (for Egypt, be it remembered, was one of the earliest seats of every branch of art, literature, and science,) adopted another and more intellectual mode, and this was to substitute a kind of mark or simple character for the outlines of the object; these marks or characters still retained some resemblance to the figure made by the outlines, but they were less difficult, required less skill and much less trouble, and were therefore universally adopted. Yet even here, there was a Yet because this art may now be acquired by every great deal of intricacy; and no small degree of patience body, it fails to attract the attention and command and skill was required, either to understand or make the admiration it so well merits. That which is comuse of them. To simplify, therefore, the method of mon is despised. How curious or beautiful soever a writing still further, the priests turned these outlines innew discovery may be, let it once become common, to arbitrary marks, which, although in the beginning and from that moment it ceases to be noticed. And they might still present a faint resemblance to the natthis principle extends in full force to the arts and sci-ural objects, in course of time deviated so much from ences; those which are new and rare are cherished their originals, as to render it almost impossible to and courted; those, perhaps, in reality more useful and trace them to their archetype, but which were nevertheworthy, but which are within the grasp of every body, less much less complicated, and more expeditious. And are despised. thus, after incredible labour, and the lapse of a vast period of time, were produced the three different modes of writing among the Egyptians, designated by the ap pellation of hieroglyphic, demotic, and hieratic. Into the nature and use of these, our limits do not permit us to enter more fully; they constitute a subject well worthy the attention of the scientific and curious, and which will well and abundantly repay the attention bestowed upon it. Time was, indeed, when the man who possessed this enviable accomplishment was distinguished highly above his fellows, and pointed out to notice as one who had made an achievement in science; but now, in these days of refinement and literature, who dares call himself accomplished because he can write? The time will soon come, when the man who cannot write his own name will stand a chance of acquiring celebrity merely from the rarity and singularity of the cha racter. We will therefore continue our inquiry, and proceed to the next step, and this was to form a connexion In spite of all this, it would be difficult to mention between the object represented by this hieroglyphical or an art which has gone through more stages in its jour-picture-writing, and the sound (for as yet letters were ney to perfection, has more exercised the talents and ingenuity of mankind in its gradual development, or required a longer period of time to bring it to maturity; and it may, perhaps, not be uninteresting, to trace, as far as our limits will allow, its rise and progress. Let us first of all obtain a definition of the term. Writing is an art by means of which we communicate to an absent person, or to posterity, the ideas or objects which present themselves to our minds; and in the present improved state of the art, this representation is made by means of arbitrary, yet fixed and defined signs, called letters. In the first ages of the world, while society was in its infancy, mankind had clearly no other method of expressing their ideas in writing, than the simple one of making a figure or shape of the object. And this mode must have been long before their dispersion; for it has been found to exist, more or less, amongst the most rude, as well as the most polished, nations of the globe,-nations who, from their natural position, and their immense distance from the other civilized parts of the world, could not have held any intercourse with the rest of mankind. The difficulty, however, and labour attached to this mode of writing, soon induced the people to be satisfied with the outlines only of the figure which expressed the object; and this method seems to have obtained in most, if not all, the nations of the earth. It was found in Mexico and Peru at the discovery of America, and, in some respects, exists to the present time in China. But as this method of expressing objects, even by not) of the word used to express it. Nor was this so difficult as would at first sight be supposed; for when a man represented any image or picture, that of" a door" for instance, he would naturally give to the combination of lines with which the figure was formed the name of "a door ;" and wherever he met with this outline or representation, or even though he should change it for some arbitrary and more simple mark, having the same signification, the same name would still remain attached to it, and by this means the word" door" would for ever afterwards become associated with a certain outline or figure. The Hebrew alphabet affords a most satisfactory illustration of this. Every letter is, in fact, a word, and expresses some simple object. Deleth, for example, their fourth letter, corresponding with our D, signifies a door;" Beth, their second letter, answering to our B, "a house;" Gimel, our G, "a camel" Jod, or J, the "hand;" and this catalogue might be continued through the remaining letters, and thus it would seem that to each of them was attached a meaning. Having attained this state of advancement, the progress of the art was more rapid. Every nation in its turn contributed some letters to the common stock ; in a happy moment it was discovered, that each monosyllable terminated by a sound, which, with very little variation, was repeated in all. Nor was it difficult to ascertain the number of these sounds, which were invariably fixed to the four or five inflexions of voice. Thus were vowels added to consonants, and mankind gradually arrived at the greatest of all inventions, the invention of the Alphabet, ity she was a woman of infamous character, who, by her abominable trade, heaped up a great deal of money, and made the people of Rome her heir. She left a certain sum, the yearly interest of which was settled, that the games called Florales, or Floralia, might be celebrated annually, on her birth-day. But because this appeared impious and profane to the senate, they covered their design, and worshipped Flora under the title of "goddess of flowers ;" and pretended that they offered sacrifice to her, that the plants and trees might flourish. But who was the man, or what his nation to whom | Romans gave her the honour of a goddess, but in realthe honour of so noble an invention is due? This is a subject which has long divided the learned, and the variety of opinions upon it is in truth appalling: but the presumption appears to be strongest in favour of Thoth, a son or descendant of Mizraim, the father of the Egyptians. The Phoenician writer, Sanchoniatho, expressly attributes the formation of the Sacred Characters of the alphabet to this celebrated person. There is, moreover, a passage in Plato which, if rightly understood, and worthy of credit, should set the question at rest. He says, "That during the reign of Pharaoh Thamus, his secretary, Thouth or Theuth, came to lay before him the several discoveries he had made, amongst which was the invention of the alphabet, and he came to consult Pharaoh Thamus whether it ought to be made public."-(London) Saturday Magazine. MYTHOLOGY. PALES. "Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures, Some call her Magna Mater and Vesta. To this goddess they sacrificed milk, and wafers made of millet, that she might make the pastures fruitful. They instituted the feasts called Palilia, or Parilia, to her honour, which were observed upon the eleventh or twelfth day of the calends of May by the shepherds in the field, on the same day in which Romulus laid the foundation of the city. These feats were celebrated to appease this goddess, that she might drive away the wolves, and prevent the diseases incident to cattle. The solemnities observed in the Palilian feasts were many the shepherds placed little heaps of straw in a particular order, and at a certain distance; then they danced and leaped over them: then they purified the sheep and the rest of the cattle with the fume of rosemary, laurel, sulphur, and the like; as we learn from Ovid, who gives a description of the rites. "Great Pales, help; the past'ral rites I sing, "Ovid follows the same fiction, and relates, that Chloris, an infamous nymph, was married to Zephyrus, from whom she received the power over all the flowers. But let us return to Flora and her games. Her image, as we find in Plutarch, was exposed in the temple of Castor and Pollux, dressed in a close coat, and holding in her right hand the flowers beans and peas. For while these sports were celebrated, the officers or ædiles scattered beans and other pulse among the people. These games were proclaimed and begun by sound of trumpet, as we find mentioned in Juvenal." The feasts of the Floralia were noted for lewdness, the women celebrating them naked. Cato once entered the assembly; but the sight was too much for his unbending virtue; he retired with the utmost speed, from the shameful spectacle. FERONIA. "Feronia, the goddess of the woods, is justly placed near Flora, the goddess of flowers. She is called Feronia, from the care she takes in producing and propagating trees. The higher place is due to her, because fruits are more valuable than flowers, and trees than small and ignoble plants. It is said she had a grove sacred to her under the mountain Soracte: this was set on fire, and the neighbours were resolved to remove the image of Feronia thence, when on a sudden the grove became green again. Strabo reports that those who were inspired by this goddess used to walk barefoot upon burning coals without hurt. Though many believed that by the goddess Feronia, tnat kind of virtue only is meant by which fruit and flowers were produced. FLORA. POMONA. "Pomona is the goddess, the guardian, the president, not of apples only, but of all the fruit and the product of trees and plants. She follows after Flora and Feronia in order; but in the greatness of her merit she far surpasses them, and has a priest who serves her only, called Flamen Pomonalis. "Once when Pomona was very busy in looking after her gardens and orchards with great care, and was wholly employed in watering and securing the roots, "Flora is the goddess and president of flowers. The and lopping the overgrown branches, Vertumnus, a principal god among the Romans, (called so because | happiness even of a god, to have her to wife. Observe, he had power to turn himself into what shape he says he, the trees which creep up this wall: how do pleased,) fell in love with Pomona, and counterfeited the apples and plums strive which shall excel the other the shape of an old gray-headed woman. He came in beauty and colour! whereas, if they had not props leaning on a staff into the gardens, admired the fruit or supports, which like husbands hold them up, they and beauty of them, and commending her care about would perish and decay. All this did not move her, them, he saluted her. He viewed the gardens, and till Vertumnus changed himself into a young man; from the observations he had made, he began to dis- and then she also began to feel the force and power of course of marriage, telling her that it would add to the love, and then received him with favour." F D1 D1 THE CLIFF WAGON, FOR THE PRESERVATION OF LIFE FROM SHIPWRECK. As scarcely any of our readers are unconnected with, or uninterested in individuals who are occasionally exposed to the perils of shipwreck, we give a sketch of the Cliff Wagon for communicating with persons who have been wrecked, or have reached the shore, at the bottom of high cliffs, to whom there is not any access from the summit, or by boats, on account of the heaviness of the sea, and the rocky nature of the coast. Attention was very painfully excited to the best means of rendering assistance on rocky and precipitous coasts to shipwrecked persons, when it was found, in the case of the Wilhelmina, a foreign vessel, that the Life-Boat, and Captain Manby's mortar apparatus, could not afford succour. The Wilhelmina, after a fearful suspense of many hours, in which there were occasional gleams of hope that she might escape, struck, and was speedily broken up against a detached rock, at some distance from the main cliffs, considerably to the southward of the entrance of the river Tyne. The labourers of the adjacent farms, and others, were watching her, with such ropes as they could procure. A portion of the wreck conveying five persons drove in shore, and was brought by the wind into a bay: they seemed to have escaped: a subsequent wave carried them back into destruction. Though the cliff was not very high, there was not any path or descent, and the ropes were not strong enough to allow of lowering by them the men, amongst the anxious bystanders, who earnestly desired to make the dangerous experiment. In their sight, the whole crew of the Wilhelmina, including a woman and an infant child, perished.* shipwreck. The machine here described was built under the direction and at the expense of the Whitburn Establishment for the preservation of life from ship wreck. The Cliff Wagon was invented by Mr. James Davison, master mariner, of Whitburn, near Sunderland, who was for some time very active in charge of the Life-boat, at Redcar, near the mouth of the river Tees, and has since been in the superintendence of the establishment at Whitburn, for the preservation of life from Their bodies were eventually found, and buried with the ntes of the Church of England, in Whitburn churchyard. It is a platform a a, 14 feet 9 inches, by 6 feet, made of 1 inch deal planks, guarded by rails BB at the sides and one end, moving on four wheels by one or two horses, with a shaft like a common wagon. Three strong uprights D D D, on each side, each 10 inches by 2 thick, support an inclined beam EE, 17 feet long, and 6 inches by 5, on rollers, upon which works a sliding lever FF, 21 feet long, of the same dimensions as the supporting beam EE they are connected by hoops dd, and pass through the tops of the uprights D1, D2, and through the bottom D 3. At the extremity of each lever, is suspended, by means of blocks and the strongest patent rope, made of whale-line, a sling or seat; the ropes connected with which pass through a sheaf or block in the end F, of each lever, and of the upright D3; and thus, by the assistance of a few men, four or more persons with ropes, life-buoys, &c. &c. may be lowered down at the same time, from the top of the inaccessible cliff, to the aid of the unfortunate mari. ners below. One swing may remain down, if required, for the security of the men, when the sea beats upon the base of the cliffs; into the other swing, they can put each person as they rescue them from the waves. For women and children, or men who may be injured or exhausted, a strong wicker basket has been provided, to be substituted for the swing, in which they may be laid at length, and carried when laid to the summit of the cliff, without the pain of further removal, to the nearest house. The ordinary sling is provided with a strong strap to buckle round the waist, and will, with the person saved, convey a man to take care of him. When called into service, the wagon is backed as near to the edge of the most perpendicular part of the cliff as may be deemed sufficiently solid to bear the weight of it. It is made fast by letting down the spur COMMUNICATION WITH A SHIP IN DISTRESS BY MEANS OF THE CLIFF WAGON. The Cliff Wagon possesses almost every quality which can recommend any invention destined to a similar purpose. That built at Whitburn was completed and painted for about 401. ropes included; it was made by the village workmen. There is not in it any thing intricate any springs or nice mechanism which may be deranged-any thing which rapidly decays, or cannot be readily replaced;-not any thing, in short, which is not available for the exertion of the simple physical power of any men who can be brought together. If the materials of which the Cliff Wagon is formed be substantial, no caution is required beyond that of securely fixing it in its position on sound ground at the edge of the cliff, and steadiness and slowness in lowering and raising the slings; too great exertion of strength in pulling causes the levers to play too much, and materially increases any previously unseen danger from projections on the face of the cliffs. street, Strand, where it is hoped it will attract the attention of those friends of humanity who may have it in their power to recommend it to the committees and associations for the preservation of life from shipwreck within whose districts are portions of steep cliffs, on which vessels have been lost. A model of the Cliff Wagon, made, as well as many others, by the inventor, now in his eighty-second year, is to be placed in the National Gallery, in Adelaide |