ADVERBS FROM CASES.

§ 292. Seldom is the old dative of the adjective seld. Whilom is the dative of the substantive while.

Else, unawares, eftsoons, by rights, are genitive forms of adjectives. Needs (as in needs must go) and noways are the genitive cases of substantives.

Once, twice, thrice, are the genitive forms of numerals.

Little, less, well, are neuter accusatives of adjectives.

Athwart is a neuter accusative.

The neuter accusative is a common source of adverbs in all tongues. Home, always, sometimes, a while, to-morrow, yesterday.

ADVERBS HAVING THE SAME FORM AS ADJECTIVES.

§ 293. In Anglo-Saxon the adverb was usually formed from the adjective by the addition of e; as, Georn and geornlic, earnest; georne and geornlice, earnestly: sweotol, manifest; sweotole and sweotolice, manifestly swidh and swidhlic, great; swidhe and swidhlice, greatly.

It is exactly by dropping this adverbial termination e, especially where the connection in meaning of the adverb and of the adjective is not immediately obvious, that in English many adverbs are found agreeing in form with the adjectives from which they are derived; as,

Anglo-Saxon lang or long, adjective, and lange or longe, adverb. Whence English long, adjective and adverb.

Anglo-Saxon let or lat, adjective, and late or late, adverb. Whence English late, adjective and adverb. Compare also clean, cleanly, fast, high, hard, loud, right, sore, soft, thick, wide, ready, evil, ill.

That this mode of forming adverbs has extended itself to a few adjectives of French or Latin origin is not surprising; as, English clear, adjective and adverb (compare French clair, Latin clarus and clare); just, adjective and adverb (compare French juste, Latin justus and juste.)

The apparent poetic use of adjectives for adverbs is to be explained on the principle that the poets delight in antique forms. This use is often found in poetry, where it is obsolete in prose; as,

"Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring."-PorE.

"Slow tolls the village clock."-BEATTIE.

"And louder yet, and yet more dread,

Swells the high trump that wakes the dead."-SCOTT.

ADVERBIAL PHRASES.

§ 294. By an adverbial phrase is meant any combination of words which in a complex sentence may stand for an adverb.

random ;"

66

This happened many days afterward.”

"He struck at

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

§ 295. Certain adverbs are capable of taking an inflection, namely, that of the comparative and superlative degrees; as, Well, better, best;

Give some examples of adverbs formed from cases. What is said of adverbs haying the same form as adjectives? Give some instances of adverbial phrases.

ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; soon, sooner, soonest ; often, oftener, oftenest; long, longer, longest.

Adverbs ENDING IN LY are compared by more and most; as, Brightly, more brightly, most brightly.

Other adverbs generally, in the meaning they express, have no degrees of intensity, and are therefore incapable of comparison.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS.

§ 296. Adverbs are usually divided into various classes, according to the nature of the modification which they denote; as, Adverbs of TIME, PLACE, NUMBER, Degree, ManneR. This division is logical rather than etymological.

I. Adverbs of TIME, or those which answer to the question When? or How often?

1. Of time present: Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly.

2. Of time past: Yesterday, already, lately, heretofore, hitherto, since, ago, erewhile, erst.

3. Of time to come: Henceforth, hereafter, by-and-by, soon, erelong. 4. Of time relative: When, then, while, whilst, before, after, till, until, betimes, early, late.

5. Of time absolute: Ever, always, aye, never.

6. Of time repeated: Often, oft, sometimes, seldom, rarely.

II. Adverbs of PLACE are those which answer to the questions Where? Whither? or Whence? These three words answer to the idea, 1. Of rest in a place; 2. The idea of motion toward a place; 3. The idea of motion from a place. Anglo-Saxon..

Hvar, hvider, hvonan,

Thar, thidar, thonan,
Her, hider, hënan,

Where, whither, whence.
There, thither, thence.
Here, hither, hence.

Other Adverbs of Place are, Yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, any where, elsewhere, every where, nowhere, wherever, within, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout; In, up, down, back, forth, inward, upward, downward, backward, forward; Away, out.

III. Adverbs of NUMBER are those which answer to the question How often? as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. Besides these, there are, Firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c.

IV. Adverbs of DEGREE are those which answer to the question How much? as, Much, little, too, very, right, infinitely, scarcely, hardly, merely, far, besides, chiefly, only, mostly, quite, dear, stark, partly, almost, altogether, all, clear, enough, so, as, even, how, however, howsoever, everso, something, nothing, any thing, &c.

V. Adverbs of MANNER are those which answer to the question How? (a) Adverbs of Quality; as, Well, ill, fain, lief, wisely, foolishly. (8) Of Affirmation; as, Aye, yes, yea, truly, verily, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, certes, forsooth, amen. (7) Of Negation; as, Nay, NOT, NO, nowise. (d) Of Doubt; as, Perhaps, possibly, perchance, peradventure. The following may also be considered as Adverbs of Manner, though some of them may be included in another class, namely, Thus, how, somehow, Give the classification of adverbs. What question do adverbs of time answer? What question do adverbs of place answer? What question do adverbs of number answer? What question do adverbs of manner answer?

however, howsoever, like, else, so, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, aloud.

PRIMITIVE ADVERBS OF PLACE.

§ 297. The following Adverbs of Place are worthy of attention, both on account of their decided character as primitive or radical words, and on account of the peculiar analogous formations which are made from them.

I. IN. 1. In, the most simple form, employed without a complement as an adverb, and with a complement as a preposition.

2. Within, the emphatic form, compounded of the particles with and in, employed both as an adverb and as a preposition.

3. Inner, the comparative form, but employed as an adjective of the positive degree; also innermore (obsolete), with double sign of the comparative.

4. Innermost, the full superlative form; also inmost, the shorter superlative form; both employed as adjectives.

5. Inward, toward the interior, employed as an adjective; and inwards, with the form of the genitive, employed as an adverb.

The other primitive Adverbs of Place are by, of and off, on, to and

too, with.

CHAPTER VIII.

PREPOSITIONS.

298. A PREPOSITION is a word which connects an object with a verb or an adjective, and shows the rela

Mention the primitive adverbs of place. Give the definition of the preposition, with examples.

tion between them; as, "He went through New York;" "he belongs to no party;" "he is wise for himself."

Or a Preposition is a word which can not by itself form the constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can enter into a complex proposition in combination with a noun or pronoun, to express some relation; as, Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus, was born at Alopece. Of, in this case, not only connects the word son with the word Sophroniscus, but it also shows the relation between them. At connects Alopece with the verb was born, and shows the relation between them. See $ 175.

The preposition, Latin præpositio, was so called because it was placed before the substantive to which it refers.

In showing the relations of words to each other, the preposition performs the same office in modern languages which case-endings did in the ancient languages. The relations which they express are various, such as relations of locality, of time, of causality. The original relation expressed by prepositions appears to have been that of locality.

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

§ 299. 1. At, after (the comparative of aft), by, down, far, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, till, to, through, under, up, with. These have been called simple prepositions.

2. Aboard, above, about, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart. These are formed by prefixing a.

3. Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. These are formed by prefixing be.

4. Into, out of, throughout, toward, towards, upon, until, unto, underneath, within, without. These are formed by compounding two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb.

5. Bating, barring, concurring, during, excepting, notwithstanding, regarding, respecting, touching. These were originally participles, and they can be treated as participles.

6. Save and except can be treated as verbs in the imperative mode. Nigh, near, next, opposite, can be viewed as prepositions in construction, or as adjectives, the preposition to being understood. Along may be considered as a preposition in certain combinations; as, "He went along the river." But, when equivalent to except, has the force of a preposition.

7. There are also certain Prepositional Phrases; as, According to, in respect of; as, On account of the love propter amorem.

What is the derivation of the term, and does the name describe the nature and office of the preposition? What office do prepositions perform in modern languages as compared with ancient languages? What are some of the relations which prepositions express? and what was the original relation which they expressed? Mention some of the simple prepositions, and some of the compound of the several classes. Mention some of the prepositions which were originally participles; and some that were verbs in the imperative mode; and some that were adjectives; and some of the prepositional phrases.

H

CHAPTER IX.

CONJUNCTIONS.

§ 300. A CONJUNCTION is a word which connects two sentences, or like parts of a sentence; as, "John writes and Thomas reads;" "I will visit him if he desires it;" "two and two are four."

Or a CONJUNCTION is a word that can connect two propositions without making a part of either; as, "The sun shines and the sky is clear;" 66 'you admire him because he is brave."

The word conjunction is from the Latin con, with, and junctio, a joining joining together.

THE COMMON CLASSIFICATION.

§ 301. I. The COPULATIVE. And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so, but.

II. The DISJUNCTIVE. Although, but, either, neither, except, lest, or, nor, notwithstanding, provided, than, though, whereas, whether.

Some of these conjunctions can be arranged in pairs which are Correlative; as, As-as; as-so; if-then; either-or; neither-nor; whether -or; although or though-yet. The one conjunction in each couplet is correlative to the other.

THE OFFICE OF CONJUNCTIONS.

§ 302. The distinctive office of conjunctions is to connect propositions; they also connect words or like parts of a proposition, as in the example shown, "Two and two are four."

For the opposite views of HORNE TOOKE and Sir JOHN STODDART, SEE English Grammar, § 378.

ORIGIN OF CONJUNCTIONS.

• § 303. Conjunctions are generally derived from some other part of speech; frequently from pronouns. HORNE TOOKE, indeed, asserts that they all are traceable to some other part of speech. He says, "There is not such a thing as a conjunction in any language which may not, by a skillful herald, be traced home to its own family and origin." AND Latin et, a principal copulative, has the force of with, beside; Give the definition of a conjunction, and the derivation of the term. What is the distinguishing characteristic of conjunctions? Give the common classification, with instances of copulative, disjunctive, and correlative conjunctions. State HORNE TOOKE's opinion of the office of conjunctions, with examples and illustrations. What is said of the origin of conjunctions?