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"Either of the roads is good." Here either is a Pronoun. "I will take either road at your pleasure." Here either is an Adjective. Either has also sometimes the meaning of each; as, "Seven times the sun had either tropic viewed;" "Two thieves were crucified on either side."

NEITHER not either, is used as a Pronoun and as an Adjective; as "Neither office will fit the candidate, though neither of the offices is filled."

OTHER, Anglo-Saxon other, is used as a Pronoun, and opposed to one; as, "All rational evidence is derived from one or other of these two sources." It is also used as an Adjective; as, "Other sheep I have which are not of this fold." When used without a substantive it takes a plural, Other, others. Other indicates separation, and means one more, or one of the same class or kind.

ANOTHER is the Anglo-Saxon an, one, and other one other. "Let another praise thee, and not thine own mouth." Here another is a Pronoun. "Another soldier was killed." Here another is an Adjective. Another is used in the possessive case; as, “Another's aid.”

ONE, a numeral Adjective, is also used as a Pronoun. One, when contrasted with other, sometimes represents plural nouns; as, "The reason why the one are ordinarily taken for real qualities, and the other for bare powers, seems to be."-LOCKE. "There are many whose waking thoughts are wholly employed on their sleeping ones."-ADDIIt frequently is not easy to distinguish between the one here described, and the one described in § 244. One often stands in company with every, any, no, some.

SON.

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ANY, Anglo-Saxon ænig, from one, has several meanings: 1. After negative words, and such words and phrases as have a negative force, any" marks the exclusion of all. "He did it without any hesitation." "We can not make any difference between you." So after "scarcely," and comparatives, and in questions where the expected answer is nobody, none. Scarcely any one." "He is taller than any of his schoolfellows." "Can any man believe this?" 2. It is sometimes equivalent to "any you please,' every body;" as, any body can do that." 3. Again, it is sometimes indefinite, being equivalent to some one; as, "Shall we tell any body of our misfortunes ?"

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"Objects

SUCH, Anglo-Saxon svile, Old Saxon sulic, German solch. of importance must be portrayed by objects of importance; such as have grace by things graceful.”—CAMPBELL's Rhetoric, i., 2. Such here supplies the place of a noun, though it retains its adjectival character, and the noun may be added.

AUGHT, Anglo-Saxon aht, auht, awiht=a whit. The word naught is aught preceded by the negative particle. "Doth Job serve God for naught?"not a whit=not any thing=nothing.

SOME, Anglo-Saxon sum. "Some to the shores do fly, some to the woods." In cases like this it has a Pronominal character. "Some men and some women were present." Here some is adjectival. "Some with numerals is used to signify about. Some fifty years ago." Objections have been made to this phraseology; but it is a good old Saxon idiom. "Sum is often combined with the genitive plural of the cardinal numbers, and signifies about; as, 'Sume ten gear, some ten years.'"-Rask,

p. 61.

FORMER, LATTER; the one denotes priority, the other posteriority.

F

Their nouns are frequently understood. Used substantively in the singular, they have a regular genitive; as, "The former's phlegm, the latter's vivacity."

BOTH, Anglo-Saxon butu. "Abraham took sheep and oxen, and gave them to Abimelech, and both of them made a covenant." Here both is the representative of Abraham and Abimelech. "He will not bear the loss of his estate; but he will bear both, because he is prepared for both." Here, too, it is pronominal in its character. "To both the preceding kinds the term burlesque is applied.”—CAMPBELL'S Rhetoric, i., 2. Here it is adjectival.

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Own, Anglo-Saxon agen, from agan, to own. In its Adjectival character, it is intensive, being added to words to render the sense emphatical; as, "This is my own book." In the following example it has a Pronominal character: "That they may dwell in a place of their own.' -2 Sam., ch. vii. In this example a substantive can not follow own. So this: "This is an invention of his own.'

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For a list of this class of words, see § 197. It should be added that many of them are now considered to be indefinite numerals.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

§ 243. A RECIPROCAL PRONOUN is one that implies the mutual action of different agents. EACH OTHER and ONE ANOTHER are our reciprocal forms, which are treated exactly as if they were compound pronouns, taking for their genitives each other's, one another's. Each other is properly used of two or more, and one another of more than two.

INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS.

§ 244. Ir. The pronoun IT is often used in an indeterminate sense, and in a plural signification:

"'Tis these that early taint the female soul."-POPE. "Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it toward heaven."-Exod., ix., 8. "It seems," "it pleased him," are instances of the same indeterminate use of it. In the phrases it rains, it hails, it thunders, it refers to the face of external nature, which is supposed to be in the notice of all parties. Hence the phrases are perfect in themselves, and require nothing antecedent or consequent to explain them.

ONE. ONE, as used in the phrases one does so and so; one is in doubt, has been called an indeterminate pronoun. One says they say it is said man sagt, German on dit, French. This is from the Old French hom, om, and is not connected with the numeral, but is a dialectic yariety with man itself, just as the French on dit grew out of the older

What is a reciprocal pronoun, and which are the reciprocal pronouns? Mention the indeterminate pronouns. Give examples of the use of it as an indeterminate pronoun; and of one.

phrase hom dit, i. e., homo dicit. This word is so far substantival that it is inflected. Genitive singular, one's own self; plural, "My wife and little ones are well." Somebody, something; any body, any thing; every body, every thing; nobody, nothing, may be classed with the indeterminate pronouns.

CHAPTER VI.

THE VERB.

§ 245. A VERB is a word which may express an Assertion; as, "John reads." Here the act of reading is asserted of John. "Sugar is sweet." Here the quality of sweetness is asserted of sugar.

Or a VERB is a word which can form by itself the Predicate of a proposition; as, "The sun shines." Here shines forms the predicate of the proposition, and is by the definition a verb. "God is." Here is forms the predicate of the proposition. See English Grammar, § 317.

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As the verb essentially expresses assertion, without which there could be no communication of thought, it was regarded by the ancient grammarians as the very soul of a sentence, and called verbum the word. The verb, the verb only, predicates. The Chinese call verbs live words, nouns dead words.

BECKER'S VIEWS.

§ 246. Verbs are, in point of signification, either Notional Verbs or Relational Verbs.

All verbs are notional words excepting auxiliary verbs, which are relational. These latter verbs express only time, or modality, or the passive voice of a notional verb, which is then termed the principal. See § 269. Notional verbs express either activity or existence.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

§ 247. I. Those of the ANCIENT or STRONG Conjugation, commonly called Irregular. See § 276.

II. Those of the MODERN or WEAK Conjugation, commonly called Regular. See § 281.

Verbs have also been divided into Principal and Auxiliary Verbs, Substantive and Adjective Verbs, Primitive and Derived Verbs.

There are also Reflective, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs.

Give the definition of a verb. What are BECKER's views of the nature of a verb? Give the classification of verbs.

Verbs are divided into two classes, according to their uses: I. TRANSITIVE. II. INTRANSITIVE. Many verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive.

TRANSITIVE VERBS.

§ 248. Verbs are called TRANSITIYE if their idea is incomplete without the complementary notion of an object; as, "He struck." Here the meaning of struck is incomplete, for it has no object.

"He

1. Transitive Verbs express an assertion in two forms, called the ACTIVE VOICE and the PASSIVE VOICE. 2. The term transitive signifies passing over. struck the boy." Here something is supposed to pass over from the subject to the object. The verb struck is a transitive verb in the active form. "The boy was struck by him." Here the same affirmation is expressed in the passive form. The object of the verb in the former case is the subject in this.

3. The object of a transitive verb is always its complement, which, if not expressed by the speaker or the writer, is supplied by the hearer or the reader from the

connection.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

§ 249. Verbs are called INTRANSITIVE if their notion or idea is complete without the aid of any complementary notion; as, "He sleeps." Here the meaning of sleeps is complete. It is confined to the subject; it needs no object.

1. The term intransitive means not passing over. "He runs. Here the act of running is limited to the

subject.

2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can not regularly be used in the passive form.

When are verbs called transitive verbs, and in what two forms do they express an assertion? What is the meaning of the word transitive, and what is said of the active and passive form in this connection? What is said of the object of a transitive verb? When are verbs called intransitive verbs? What is the meaning of intransitive? Can intransitive verbs be regularly used in the passive form?

3. Some verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense; as, Range, to place in order; and Range, to roam at large.

4. An intransitive verb can be defined as one which expresses simple being; as, I am, or state of being; as, He sleeps; or action limited to the agent; as, He runs.

THE ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS.

§ 250. To verbs belong PERSON, NUMBER, TENSE, MODE, and VOICE. The forms of conjugation are, voices, for the relation of the action of the verb to the subject; modes, for the relation of reality, whether existing, conceived of, or willed by the speaker; tenses, for the relation of time; numbers and persons, to agree with the number and person of the subject.

THE PERSONS OF VERBS.

§ 251. Verbs have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD.

Compared with the Latin, the Greek, the Sanscrit, the Moso-Gothic, and almost all the ancient languages, there is in English only a very slight amount of inflection.

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1. Here we see six different terminations in the three persons of the two numbers of the Latin.

Give an instance of a verb being used sometimes in the transitive and sometimes in the intransitive form. What does an intransitive verb express? What are the attributes of verbs? How many persons are there in verbs? What is the amount of inflection in English compared with some other languages, and what is said of these inflections of the verbs?

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