BAKERS' CHEMICALS.

THE substances employed for the artificial production of porosity in bread, as already mentioned, are sodium bicarbonate (now termed "saleratus "), potassium bitartrate, tartaric acid, and calcium diphosphate, the various mixtures of these compounds being known as baking powders. Some of the above chemicals are not always used in the pure state, and, in addition to this source of contamination, baking powders are often excessively diluted with flour or starch, and seriously adulterated with alum.

The sodium bicarbonate employed is generally a fairly pure article. Common grades of the salt contain a little sodium chloride, and in some cases as much as 2 per cent. of the corresponding sulphate; it may also prove to be somewhat deficient in the proportion of carbonic acid pre

Cream of tartar (potassium bitartrate), is far more liable to adulteration. A certain quantity of calcium tartrate is often found in the commercial article, originating from its method of manufacture, and amounting, on the average, from 6 to 7 per cent. The salt is, moreover, sometimes intentionally mixed with alum, starch, tartaric acid, gypsum, chalk and terra alba.

Occasionally so-called cream of tartar has been found to be wholly composed of starch and calcium diphosphate. In the examination for calcium tartrate and sulphate, a quantitative determination of the total lime and sulphuric acid is made. The quantity of sulphuric acid obtained is calculated to gypsum, any excess of lime left being returned as tartrate. The ash in pure cream of tartar should amount to 36'79 per cent., while that of calcium tartrate

is only 21 54 per cent. Naturally, the addition of flour or starch would materially decrease the proportion of ash. The presence of these latter adulterants is recognised by means of the microscope, and by testing the sample with iodine solution. It is generally required that cream of tartar should contain at least 90 per cent. of potassium bitartrate.

Baking powders.-The usual composition of baking powders has already been stated. They all contain sodium bicarbonate, but differ in the acid ingredient present, which may consist of cream of tartar, tartaric acid, calcium diphosphate, or alum. In order to remedy the tendency to deterioration which exists in powders entirely composed of the above salts, it is the practice to add a considerable amount of" filling" (corn-starch, flour, etc.). The quantity of filling employed for this purpose varies from 20 to 60 per cent., but is as a rule, greater than is really necessary. A small proportion of the sodium salt is often replaced by ammonium sesquicarbonate. Alum is a more objectionable constituent of many preparations, and it should be considered an adulteration. The practical value of baking powder is chiefly dependent upon the quantity of carbonic acid it liberates when decomposed, and this is affected by the strength of the acid salt and the amount of "filling" used. The most common varieties of baking powders

are:

(a) Sodium bicarbonate and cream of tartar, either pure or mixed with starch. In testing this class of powders, it is usual to determine the excessive alkalinity remaining after the decomposition with water, by means of decinormal acid; this is put down as bicarbonate present in The proportions of sodium bicarbonate and cream of tartar are calculated from the alkaline strength of the ash, minus the excessive alkalinity found.

excess.

Impurities originating from the cream of tartar employed are estimated as previously described; and the amount of starch contained is determined by the usual methods. In

some preparations, tartaric acid is substituted for cream of

tartar.

The following proportions represent the composition of a baking powder of good quality :

(b) Sodium bicarbonate and calcium diphosphate.-Calcium sulphate occurs as an impurity in the commercial phosphate and is therefore liable to be met with in phosphate powders. In addition to phosphoric acid, lime, etc., a determination of sulphuric acid and chlorine should be made.

(c) Sodium bicarbonate and alum.-These constitute the most reprehensible forms of baking powder. The sanitary effects of alum have been referred to under Flour. It may be present either as potash or ammonia alum. The following is a fair example of an alum powder :

From an exhaustive investigation of baking powders made by Dr. Henry A. Mott, it was found that about 50 per cent. of these preparations were impure, alum being the chief admixture. Of 280 samples of cream of tartar lately examined by various American Health Boards, 100 were adulterated; of 95 baking powders tested, 16 were adulterated.

SUGAR.

THE sugars of commerce may be conveniently classified into two varieties, viz., sucrose (cane sugar or saccharose) and dextrose (grape sugar or glucose). The former, which is the kind almost exclusively employed for domestic uses, is chiefly obtained from the sugar cane of the West Indies and American Southern States (Saccharum officinarum), and, in continental Europe, from the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris). A comparatively small quantity is manufactured in the United States from the sugar maple (Acer saccharinum), and from sorghum (Sorghum saccharatus).

Cane Sugar (C12 H22 O11).—Among the more important chemical properties of cane sugar are the following:-It dissolves in about one-third its weight of cold water-much more readily in hot water-and is insoluble in cold absolute alcohol. From a concentrated aqueous solution it is deposited in monoclinic prisms, which possess a specific gravity of 1580. Cane sugar is characterised by its property of rotating the plane of a ray of polarised light to the right; the rotary power is 66° 6. Upon heating its solution with dilute mineral acids, it is converted into a mixture termed "invert sugar," which consists of equal parts of dextrose and levulose. The former turns the plane of polarised light to the right, the latter to the left; but owing to the stronger rotation exerted by the levulose, the combined rotary effect of invert sugar is to the left, i. e., opposite to that possessed by cane sugar. Invert sugar exhibits the important property of reducing solutions of the salts of copper, which is not possessed by pure cane sugar. Cane sugar melts at 160°; at a higher temperature