Leaving out the city of Lawrence, the ratio for the three smaller communities of Scituate, Clinton, and Whitman averages only 30 per cent.

The figures for the above twenty-five estates in detail are as follows:

In Lawrence, a cotton manufacturing city of 70,000 inhabitants, of seven estates the several assessed valuations were respectively 72, 67, 62, 48, 42, 38, and 15 per cent. of the net value. The average valuation was 48 per cent. of the net land value.

In Scituate, Mass., a shore town of 2600 inhabitants, of four estates the several assessed valuations were respectively 5212, 50, 48, and 13 per cent. of the net value. The average assessed valuation was 371⁄2 per cent. of the net land value.

In Clinton, a manufacturing town of 13,000 inhabitants, of five estates the several assessed valuations were respectively 38, 37, 342, 272, and 222 per cent. of the net value. The average assessed valuation was 32 per cent. of the net land value.

In Whitman, a shoe manufacturing town of 6500 inhabitants, of nine estates the several assessed valuations were respectively 83, 62, 452, 43, 32, 27, 23, 19, and 14 per cent. of the net value. The average assessed valuation was 21 per cent. of the net land value.

The minor importance of agricultural rent [page 129]. The Massachusetts valuations for 1907 offer a market illustration.

Thus the land valuations of the 284 small towns ($123,986,089) and of the 70 cities and large towns ($1,228,294,260)

1

are seen to be about in the ratio of one to ten. Nor must it be overlooked, that there is a larger proportion of urban property in small towns 1 than of farm property in the large ones. The State census, which gives farm values by themselves, corroborates the above estimate.

1 [The Western reader may observe that the New England "small town" is a township, largely rural.-ED.]

THE NEW YORK EXCHANGES

[GOVERNOR CHARLES E. HUGHES appointed in December, 1908, a committee consisting of business men and bankers and the economist, John B. Clark, which was known as "the Governor's commission on speculation in securities and commodities." Its instructions were to endeavor to ascertain "what changes, if any, are advisable in the laws of the State, bearing upon speculation in securities and commodities, or relating to the protection of investors, or with regard to the instrumentalities and organizations used in dealings in securities and commodities which are the subject of speculation." The committee reported June 7, 1909. The following extracts give the greater part of the description of the exchanges and of their actual operations. The parts omitted pertain very largely to foreign experience, to the Committee's opinions as to the morality and harmfulness of the operations, and to the recommendations of reformative legislation. The latter are summarized at the end of the extract.]

In New York City there are two exchanges dealing in securities and seven in commodities. In addition there is a security market, without fixed membership or regular officers, known as the "Curb." The exchanges dealing in commodities are incorporated, while those dealing in securities are not. . . . The New York Stock Exchange. The New York Stock Exchange is a voluntary association, limited to 1100 members, of whom about 700 are active, some of them residents of other cities. Memberships are sold for about $80,000. The Exchange as such does no business, merely providing facilities to members and regulating their conduct. The governing power is an elected committee of forty members and is plenary in scope. The business transacted on the floor is the purchase and sale of stocks and bonds of corporations and governments. Practically all transactions must be completed by delivery and payment on the following day.

The mechanism of the Exchange, provided by its consti

tution and rules, is the evolution of more than a century. An organization of stockbrokers existed here in 1792, acquiring more definite form in 1817. It seems certain that for a long period the members were brokers or agents only; at the present time many are principals as well as agents, trading for themselves as well as for their customers. A number of prominent capitalists hold memberships merely for the purpose of availing themselves of the reduced commission charge which the rules authorize between members.

The volume of transactions indicates that the Exchange is to-day probably the most important financial institution in the world. In the past decade the average annual sales of shares have been 196,500,000 at prices involving an annual average turnover of nearly $15,500,000,000; bond transactions averaged about $800,000,000. This enormous business affects the financial and credit interests of the country in so large a measure that its proper regulation is a matter of transcendent importance. While radical changes in the mechanism, which is now so nicely adjusted that the transactions are carried on with the minimum of friction, might prove disastrous to the whole country, nevertheless measures should be adopted to correct existing abuses.

Patrons of the Exchange. The patrons of the Exchange may be divided into the following groups:

(1) Investors, who personally examine the facts relating to the value of securities or act on the advice of reputable and experienced financiers, and pay in full for what they buy.

(2) Manipulators, whose connection with corporations issuing or controlling particular securities enables them under certain circumstances to move the prices up or down, and who are thus in some degree protected from dangers encountered by other speculators.

(3) Floor traders, who keenly study the markets and the general conditions of business, and acquire early information concerning the changes which affect the values of securities. From their familiarity with the technique of dealings on the

Exchange, and ability to act in concert with others, and thus manipulate values, they are supposed to have special advantages over other traders.

(4) Outside operators having capital, experience, and knowledge of the general conditions of business. Testimony is clear as to the result which, in the long run, attends their operations; commissions and interest charges constitute a factor always working against them. Since good luck and bad luck alternate in time, the gains only stimulate these men to larger ventures, and they persist in them till a serious or ruinous loss forces them out of the "Street.'

(5) Inexperienced persons, who act on interested advice, "tips," advertisements in newspapers, or circulars sent by mail, or "take flyers" in absolute ignorance, and with blind confidence in their luck. Almost without exception they eventually lose.

Marginal trading. It is unquestionable that only a small part of the transactions upon the Exchange is of an investment character; a substantial part may be characterized as virtually gambling. . . . Two practices are prolific of losses, namely, buying active securities on small margins and buying unsound securities, paying for them in full. The losses in the former case are due to the quick turns in the market, to which active stocks are subject; these exhaust the margins and call for more money than the purchasers can supply. The losses in the latter case are largely due to misrepresentations of interested parties and unscrupulous manipulations. . . . "Pyramiding," ... is the use of paper profits in stock transactions as a margin for further commitments. . . . The practice tends to produce more extreme fluctuations and more rapid wiping out of margins. . . .

...

Short-selling. Contracts and agreements to sell, and deliver in the future, property which one does not possess at the time of the contract, are common in all kinds of business. The man who has "sold short" must some day buy in order to return the stock which he has borrowed to make the short sale.