long, constitutes the eastern boundary of Pennsylvania. Ocean steamers of the largest size ascend as far as Philadelphia, and small steamboats can reach Trenton. Its principal tributaries are the Lehigh, 90 miles long and an important channel for the coal and lumber trade, which enters the Delaware at Easton; and the Schuylkill, taking its rise among the mountains of the coal region, which supplies Philadelphia with water and unites with the Delaware below that city after a course of 130 miles. The Susquehanna River rises in Otsego Lake, New York, flows across Pennsylvania and, passing into Maryland, discharges its waters into Chesapeake Bay. It is a broad stream, having a width of a mile and a quarter at Harrisburg, but is too shallow for navigation. The chief affluents of the Susquehanna are the West Branch, the Tioga and the "blue Juniata," famous among tourists for its beauty. Draining Western Pennsylvania are the two rivers which united form the Ohio-viz., the Alleghany and the Monongahela. The former rises in Potter county, sweeps into the State of New York, affording water communication as far as Olean, 240 miles above its mouth, and then, flowing southward, unites at Pittsburg with the Monongahela, which has its sources in the highlands of West Virginia. Lake Erie extends for 40 miles along the north-western boundary, thus affording to Pennsylvania a connection with the great system of lake navigation. Forests.-Large tracts of mountain land are covered with a dense growth of timber. Around the headwaters of the West Branch of the Susquehanna are primeval forests from which immense quantities of lumber are cut every year. Among the forest trees are the pine, cedar, spruce, hemlock, larch, ash, elm, linden, beech, mulberry, hornbeam, chestnut, aspen, persimmon, locust, sassafras, birch, gum, catalpa, sycamore, poplar, pawpaw, magnolia, maple, oak, hickory, walnut, etc. The bear, panther, wildcat, wolf, fox, raccoon, otter, opossum, deer and other wild animals are met with in the parts remote from civilization.

Soil and Climate.-The eastern counties have a fertile loam, which is brought to a high state of cultivation and produces large crops. In the counties along the Maryland line there is a strong and quick soil, resting upon a limestone formation, and well adapted for wheat and other grains. The mountain region is generally unproductive, the soil being cold and thin, but there are warm and deep alluvial lands in the valleys. West of the Alleghanies the soil has the fertility characteristic of the great valley of the Ohio. The isothermal lines crossing the State are: Spring, 45°-50°; summer, 67°-72°; autumn, 47°-55°; winter, 25°-30°; annual mean, 45°-55°. According to the report of the United States Signal Service Bureau, the average temperature for the three years ending Sept. 30, 1874, was 51.92° at Philadelphia and 51.33° at Pittsburg. The mean for the three summer months was 71°, and the maximum 97°, at the former city. During the month of August, 1875, the maximum temperature was 85°,

on the 6th, and the minimum 58°, on the 2d. The annual rainfall for two years was 40.17 inches at Pittsburg and 51.81 inches at Philadelphia.

Agricultural Productions.-Pennsylvania ranked first in the production of rye in 1873, being credited with 3,283,000 bushels, which was one-fifth of the whole production of the United States. It was first also in oats (31,229,000 bushels), and ranked next to New York in buckwheat, potatoes and hay. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato, tobacco and hay crops was $115,965,700 (next to New York and Illinois). In 1874 the State contained 557,000 horses, 24,900 mules, 722,600 oxen and other cattle, 812,600 milch cows (next to New York), 1,034,400 hogs and 1,674,000 sheep. The last Federal census reported 17,994,200 acres in farms, of which 11,115,965 acres were improved; value of farms, implements and live-stock, $1,194,786,853; value of productions, $183,946,027; average size of farms, 103 acres. About 25 per cent. of the population were employed in agriculture.

Manufactures.-The number of manufacturing establishments at the time of the last census was 37,200; hands employed, 319,487; value of materials, $421,197,673; value of products, $711,894,344. Pennsylvania ranked first among the States in the number of establishments, but was surpassed by New York in the number of hands employed and in the value of the products. Among the leading industries in value were iron, $122,605,296 (more than twice as much as in New York); textiles, $63,436,186 (next to Massachusetts); building materials, $55,630,364 (first); building, not marine, $38,348,344 (first); lumber, $35,262,590 (first); flouring-mill products, $31,124,017; molasses and sugar, refined, $26,731,016; men's clothing, $21,850,319; leather, tanned, $19,828,323; coal oil, rectified, $15,251,223; printing and publishing, $13,651,396 (next to New York); drugs and chemicals, $8,451,991 (first); paper, $6,511,446 (third); brass and brassware, $2,144,055 (next to Connecticut).

Mineral Resources and Mining.-Nearly one-half the value of all the mining products of the United States was credited to Pennsylvania by the Federal census. The number of mining establishments was 3086; hands employed, 81,215; capital, $84,660,276; wages, $38,815,276; value of products, $76,208,390. In her resources of coal and petroleum this State has no rival. Full and specific information concerning these sources of wealth and prosperity will be found in the article upon PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, pp. 180-189 [see also AMERICAN MANUFACTURES]. Coal-mining is attended with no inconsiderable peril. During a single year (1872) 223 persons were killed and 609 were maimed in the anthracite region; 109 wives were made widows and 381 children were made orphans. One life was lost for every 100,660 tons of coal mined. At Avondale, on the 6th day of December, 1869, 108 men were suffocated by the smoke from a burning coal-breaker at the mouth of the only

entrance to the mine. Not a single one was brought out alive. The increase of the coal-carrying trade has been enormous. In the year 1820 the whole amount sent out from the Lehigh region was 365 tons. In 1874, according to the Report of the Auditor-General, there were transported by railroad 29,201,029 tons of anthracite, 10,444,657 tons of bituminous and 4,036,080 tons of semi-anthracite and semi-bituminous, making a total of 43,681,786 tons; 3,703,143 tons of anthracite and 3,047,089 tons of bituminous coal were transported upon the canals, making the total amount for the year 50,532,018 tons. A part of the above amount, however, was transferred from one line to another, and so reckoned two or three times over. The actual production of anthracite coal for the year ending Dec. 31, 1874, was 21,667,386 tons, and of bituminous, 11,053,615 tons; total, 32,721,001 tons. The long "strike" in 1875 caused a five months' suspension of the anthracite trade. Up to September 11, the total production of all kinds for the coal year was 15,455,200 tons. Copper, zinc, plumbago and lead are also mined in considerable quantities. Marble is quarried in Chester and Montgomery counties; and limestone, sandstone, slate and other building-stones are abundant. Salt is manufactured extensively in Western Pennsylvania. Commerce and Navigation.-Pennsylvania is favorably situated for commerce, being connected with the three great systems of water communication of the Atlantic Ocean, the Mississippi and the lakes, through the ports of Philadelphia, Pittsburg and Erie. During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $26,676,712, and of exports, $33,169,060. In the foreign trade 511 American and 682 foreign vessels entered at Philadelphia, and 481 American and 741 foreign vessels cleared. At Erie the entries were 29 American and 41 foreign vessels, and the clearances 11 American and 37 foreign, making the total number entering and clearing in the foreign trade at the ports of the State 2533 vessels. Belonging to the customs districts there were 3586 vessels, of which 449 were steamers. Ship-building. The construction of iron steamships has been brought to great perfection at the shipyards of John Roach, upon the Delaware. Twenty-four vessels, representing an aggregate of 47,000 tons, have been built since 1871, involving an annual expenditure of three millions of dollars; and Philadelphia has an American line of iron steamships of the largest class running to Liverpool. In all the shipyards of Pennsylvania there were built during the year ending June 30, 1874, 281 vessels, of which 57 were steamers.

Railroads and Canals.-From the comprehensive report of the auditor-general of Pennsylvania for the year 1874 we have gleaned the following facts. The whole number of railroad corporations whose lines are wholly or partly within the limits of the State is 146; capital stock authorized by law, $603,311,814; amount paid in, $482,931,393.50; total amount of funded and floating debt, $471,633,998.02; cost of railroads

and equipments, $744,701,826.99; length of main lines in Pennsylvania, 4392.91 miles; double track, 1806.28 miles; number of locomotives, 4100; passenger-cars, 1859; freight-cars, 53,193; coal-, stone- and tank-cars, 79,839; dépôts or stations, 3018; miles run by passenger-trains, 21,907,390; by freight-trains, 68,036,173; total number of miles run, 89,943,563; passengers carried, 42,297,158; gross receipts, $137,446,345.16 (a diminution of $10,561,687.67 from the previous year); expenses, $82,940,105.49. The gross amount of freight carried was 78,992,785 tons, among the leading items of which were 43,681,786 tons of coal, 1,653,226 of pig iron, 354,633 of railroad iron, 1,104,588. of other iron or castings, 4,160,295 of iron and other ores, 2,381,111 of lime, limestone, sandstone and slate, 6,027,360 of agricultural products, 4,434,775 of merchandise and manufactured articles, 1,827,967 of live-stock and 5,946,142 tons of lumber. By railroad accidents 540 persons were killed and 1142 injured. The statistics of street railways were: Length of roads, 311.51 miles; cost of roads and equipments, $9,695,843.57; passengers carried, 91,036,500; receipts, $5,828,690.27. Thirteen persons were killed and 26 maimed by street-cars during the year. There are nine canals in the State, having an aggregate length of 869 miles, and constructed at a cost, including equipments, of $36,816,728.14. The amount of the funded and floating debt was $46,239,173.12 in 1874; receipts, $2,289,824.55; expenses, $1,179,890.75; amount of freight transported, 7,925,883 tons. Ten telegraph companies have lines in Pennsylvania, extending for 6586 miles. The expenses in the State were $237,228.72, and the receipts $253,838.67; 586,275 messages were sent and 515,252 were received.

Public Institutions and Education.-There are two Penitentiaries, of which the Eastern, at Philadelphia, is conducted on "the separate system," and the Western, at Pittsburg, upon "the combined" system. About one thousand prisoners are confined in the two institutions. The House of Refuge, at Philadelphia, will accommodate 820 inmates, and the Reform School at Pittsburg provides for 228 pupils. Almshouses to the number of fifty-eight have been established, with real estate and buildings valued at $5,427,800, in which 13,207 paupers can be cared for. There are four State Hospitals for the Insane, located at Harrisburg, Dixmont, Danville and Warren. A department for the insane is connected with the Philadelphia Almshouse, and the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane (Kirkbride's) and the Friends' Asylum are in the same city. Up to the year 1873, 9843 males and 9143 females had been received into these various asylums for lunatics. The Pennsylvania Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb and for the Blind are schools rather than asylums. Pupils are received from New Jersey and Delaware at the expense of those States. By the new Constitution the legislature is required to provide for the maintenance and support of an efficient system of public schools,

and to appropriate at least one million dollars every year for that purpose. No public money shall be used for the support of any sectarian school. Women are eligible to any office in connection with the common-school system. The latest accessible educational statistics are: Number of schools, 16,305; pupils, 834,020; teachers, 19,089; total sum expended for school purposes under the direction of the school department, $8,812,969.25. Eight normal schools are in successful operation, with more than 100 instructors and 3000 pupils. Six universities and 33 colleges were credited to Pennsylvania by the last Federal census; but several of them do not possess full collegiate rank. The University of Pennsylvania has recently erected at West Philadelphia “one of the finest structures for educational purposes to be found in America." Girard College has under its care between 500 and 600 orphans. The Pennsylvania State College (Agricultural), in Centre county, possesses a property valued at $897,589. Tuition is free to all; twenty-five young ladies were in attendance last year. Sixteen institutions exclusively for women report an aggregate of 1267 pupils. For professional instruction there are 14 schools of theology, 2 of law, 8 of medicine (including dentistry and pharmacy) and 7 of science. The Federal census reported 14,849 libraries, 5984 religious organizations, having 5668 edifices, and 540 newspapers and periodicals, of which 55 were published daily. In 1875 the periodicals had increased to 707 (New York alone had more), of which 78 were published daily and 511 weekly.

Cities and Towns.-Philadelphia, the metropolis of Pennsylvania and the second city of the United States, in which more new buildings were erected during the past year than in both New York and Brooklyn combined, is described elsewhere [see CENTENNIAL CITY]. Harrisburg, which was made the State capital in 1812, is situated upon the east bank of the Susquehanna River, 95 miles west of Philadelphia. The State-House was completed in 1822. Five diverging railroads afford easy communication with all parts of the commonwealth. The city contains large founderies, machine-shops and rolling-mills. Water is supplied from the Susquehanna River by works constructed at a cost of two millions of dollars. There are 32 churches and 13 newspapers, of which 4 are published daily. The State library contains 30,000 volumes. John Harris, in honor of whom the place was named Harrisburg, settled in this neighborhood as early as 1726. The number of inhabitants in 1850 was 7834; in 1860, 13,405; in 1870, 23,104; in 1875, 26,000. Pittsburg, the second city of Pennsylvania in importance, is situated at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers, 354 miles west of Philadelphia. The principal public buildings are the Court-House, Custom-House, Western Penitentiary, House of Refuge, United States Arsenal and Roman Catholic Cathedral. For all kinds of heavy manufactures Pittsburg possesses the largest facilities. Iron ore in abundance is near at hand; coal is brought from the neighbor