and buff-colored), limestone and granite are found in considerable quantities. Three mining establishments were reported by the last census, producing to the value of $52,500.

Commerce and Navigation.-A river navigation of 2000 miles centres at Mobile, which is also the chief port for foreign commerce. In 1874 the amount of revenue collected was $96,765; vessels arrived, 188; cleared, 164; value of imports, $833,644; of exports, $10,235,293. Among the articles exported were 170 barrels of flour, 130,880 bales of cotton, 2172 barrels of resin and turpentine, 4,670,008 feet of lumber. Four sailing vessels and two steamers were built. 132 vessels are registered in the customs district, of which 30 are steamers, 80 sailing vessels, 22 barges.

Railroads.-The State had 46 miles of railroad in 1844. In 1873 the statistics were: Miles of railroad, 1722; total capital account, $61,001,839; cost per mile, $37,016; receipts, $4,957,941; receipts per mile, $3008; receipts per inhabitant, $4.84; net earnings, $1,155,811; number f locomotives, 201; passenger-cars, 141; freight-cars, 2421.

Public Institutions and Education.-The State Penitentiary is at Wetumpka, the Hospital for the Insane at Tuscaloosa, the Asylum for the Blind at Mobile, the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Talladega. There were 611 blind, 401 deaf and dumb and 555 insane reported by the last census. The Constitution prescribes that all children between the ages of five and twenty-one shall be educated free of charge. The latest school statistics accessible are as follows: School population, 403,735; children enrolled, white, 61,942, colored, 41,673; schools, 2561; teachers, 2650; expenditures, $606,517. The University of Alabama, founded in 1831, has an endowment of $300,000. Its buildings were burned during the war, but have been replaced. An annual appropriation of $24,000 is made by the State. The academic department has six courses of study. Howard College has ten departments. The Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Auburn, owns a property valued at $327,000, and has 102 students. Talladega College affords to its pupils preparatory, normal, collegiate and theological departments. The Medical College of Alabama, at Mobile, was attended by 84 students in 1873-4, and graduated a class of 29. It has 12 professors; $75,000 have been expended on the medical museum. The 8 colleges of the State report 63 teachers, 1026 pupils and an income of $108,800. There were 1430 libraries in Alabama in 1870, 89 newspapers and periodicals, and 2095 church organizations, having 1958 edifices.

Cities and Towns:-Mobile, the chief city, and next to New Orleans the greatest cotton mart in the United States, is situated on the Mobile River, 30 miles above the Gulf of Mexico. Mention has already been made of its commerce. The city is the centre of 4 railroads. There are several manufactories, 2 daily newspapers and 30 churches. Population in 1870,

32,034, of whom 13,913 were colored. Montgomery, the capital and second city of the State, stands on a high bluff on the Alabama River, 330 miles above Mobile. Large steamers navigate the river and four railroads enter the city. The State-house is an imposing structure, and there are other fine public buildings. It has 14 churches and 3 daily newspapers. Population, 10,588, of whom the colored people numbered 5183. The other cities are Selma, on the Alabama River (population 6487), Huntsville (4907), Talladega (1933), Tuscaloosa, the former capital (1689), Eufala (3185) and Tuscumbia (1214).

Population.-Alabama was peopled largely by immigration from the other Southern States. Virginians and Tennesseeans settled the northern part, Georgians the eastern, North Carolinians the western and southern. About Montgomery the Georgians predominated. Some French refugees made a home here after the downfall of Napoleon. The number of inhabitants in 1820 was 127,901 (slaves, 41,879); 1830, 309,527 (slaves, 117,549); 1840, 590,753 (slaves, 253,536); 1850, 771,623 (slaves, 342,844); 1860, 964,201 (slaves, 435,080); 1870, 996,864 (free colored, 475,510). Only 9962, less than one per cent., were of foreign birth. There were born in the United States 987,030, in Alabama 744,146, in Georgia 93,028, in North Carolina 30,290, in Virginia 29,636. Of natives of Alabama

129,554 were residing in other parts of the Union.

Government and Laws.-The legislative authority is vested in a senate of 33 members, elected for four years, and a house of representatives of 100 members, elected for two years. The executive authority is vested in a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of State, auditor, treasurer and attorney-general. The judicial authority is vested in a supreme court (of three judges), twelve circuit courts, five courts of chancery, and sixty-five probate courts, one for each county. The judiciary is elective. The civil divisions of a county are called "beats" instead of "districts," as in Georgia and the neighboring States.

History. The territory now called Alabama, which signifies in the Indian tongue "here we rest," was entered by Ferdinand de Soto in 1540. Coming in from Georgia, near the headwaters of the Coosa River, he journeyed southward as far as Mavilla (Mobile). The Indians, who resisted his entrance into the town, were defeated, and many hundreds of them slain. In the burning of the settlement the baggage of the Spaniards was consumed. De Soto retreated toward the north and passed over into Mississippi. Bienville, the French governor of Louisiana, built a trading-post and fort on Mobile Bay in 1702. By the treaty of Paris, in 1763, the French possessions were ceded to Great Britain. The territory of Missis sippi, which included the present State of Alabama, was organized in 1798. In 1819 Alabama was admitted into the Union as a State. January 11, 1861, it passed an ordinance of secession, and March, 13 united with the

Southern Confederacy. The first battalion for the Confederate army started for Virginia May 1. Huntsville was taken by Gen. O. M. Mitchell, April 9, 1862, and the Union forces held possession of the territory north of the Tennessee River. Rear-Admiral Farragut reduced Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines, in Mobile Bay, August, 1864. Major-General Wilson occupied Selma April 3, 1865, and Montgomery April 12. On the same day Mobile was taken, and "the last gun was fired for the Confederacy" [see HISTORICAL SKETCH, page 146]. A new State Constitution was ratified February 4, 1868.

ARKANSAS.

Situation and Extent.-Arkansas is bounded on the N. by Missouri, E. by Tennessee and Mississippi (separated by the Mississippi River), S. by Louisiana and W. by Texas and the Indian Territory. It is situated between latitudes 33° and 36° 30′ N., and longitudes 12° 45′ and 17° 40′ W. from Washington, or 89° 45' and 94° 40′ W. from Greenwich. The State is 250 miles long from north to south and from 160 to 270 miles wide from east to west. The area is 52,198 square miles, or 33,406,720

acres.

Physical Features.-Surface. The eastern part is swampy and low. Near Little Rock the hill-country begins, with summits from 400 to 500 feet high. In the west and north-west are many mountain-peaks and ranges, none of them of very great elevation. The Mamelle is a conical peak 1000 feet high. A "Sugar-Loaf" mountain is found in each of the four counties of Izard, Searcy, Marion and Van Buren. The Boston Range attains an elevation of more than 1000 feet above the general drainage of the country. Boat Mountain (1527 feet above the Little Red River), the Pilot and Stack Mountains are a conspicuous group. All these peaks have sandstone summits. In Perry and Yell counties are the Fourche la Fave (probably a corruption of Fourche de la Fauve-deer's fork) and the Petite Jean. In Polk county is a complicated range called the Cossitott Mountains. Along the southern flank of a ridge in Hot Spring county are the famous "hot springs of the Washita," more than a hundred in number. Forty-two are of sufficient size to be located upon the geological chart. Their temperature ranges from 100° to 154°, and eggs have been cooked in them. "The Mammoth Spring" of Fulton county discharges 8000 barrels of water per minute. It never freezes, and the mean annual temperature is 60°. In the north-west is a natural dam formed by a solid bed of limestone from six to eight feet thick. Rivers.-The Mississippi River washes the eastern boundary for 230 miles in a direct line and 400 by its windings. The Arkansas, 2000 miles long, flows across the State in a tortuous channel of 500 miles. At high water steamboats ascend as far as Fort Gibson, in the Indian Territory. The St. Francis, 450 miles long,

forms the eastern boundary between Arkansas and South-eastern Missouri. It is navigable for 150 miles, but there is danger from "snags." The snagboat operations for the year ending June 30, 1876, will require an appropriation from the general government of $194,000. A great earthquake in 1811 widened the river channel from five to twenty miles, producing Lake St. Francis. White River is navigable since the snag-boat operations of 1874 as far as Jacksonport, 340 miles. The Washita, a branch of the Red River, can be ascended by steamboats for 350 miles. Water communication is afforded to the south-western counties by the Red River, which makes a detour into the State. Arkansas has altogether more than a thousand miles of steamboat navigation upon its rivers. Forests.-A great variety of trees grow in the woods, among the most common of which are the cottonwood (which attains to a greater size than any other tree), black walnut, white poplar, honey locust, swamp, red and scarlet oak, box, hickory, elm, prickly ash, sweet-gum, sycamore, cypress, hackberry, maple, pecan, buckeye, yellow pine and beech, together with a very large undergrowth of papaw, cane and spice-wood. The bear, wolf, deer, raccoon, wildcat, etc., are frequently seen.

Soil and Climate.-Along the Mississippi River is the "gumswamp," or "bayou," land and the "black-wax" land, formerly overflowed by the back-water. Since the construction of levees the land has been reclaimed, and sometimes produces two bales of cotton to the acre. The cotton plant sends its roots down from four to six feet into the alluvial sediment. There are vast alluvial meadows along the Arkansas River which produce from 1000 to 1100 pounds of cotton and from 80 to 100 bushels of corn to the acre. The "black-sand land" along the Red River is also remarkable for its fertility. In some sections of the north-west the soil is gravelly and almost worthless, but large tracts are well suited for grazing and produce cereal grains and apples of the finest quality. The climate is subject to very sudden changes from the cold north winds. A traveller records in his diary that in the latter part of January he found the fields of a vivid green, the flowers blooming, the birds singing and the thermometer at 67°. Nearly two months later (March 21) ice formed and the mercury sank to 22°. The isothermal lines for the several seasons are as follows: Spring, 60°; summer, 77°-80°; autumn, 60°-65°; winter, 40°-45°; annual mean, 60°. The mercury has been known to reach 90° on as many as 50 days during a single summer. The range for the year is from 8° to 99.5°. At Little Rock the mean for 1874 was 62.6°.

Agricultural Productions.-The census of 1870 reported the number of acres in farms as 7,597,296, of which 1,714,466 acres (24.5 per cent.) were improved. The total value of all farms, farm implements and live-stock was $59,489,613; value of farm productions, $40,701,699; per acre of improved land, $21.88. There were produced 247,

968 bales of cotton, 214,784 pounds of wool, 73,021 of rice, 92 hhds. of cane-sugar, 72,008 gallons of cane-molasses, 147,203 of sorghum, 75 of maple molasses, 890,631 bushels of sweet potatoes, 47,376 bushels of peas and beans, 276,824 pounds of honey, 3743 gallons of wine. In 1873 there were raised 16,208,000 bushels of Indian corn, 785,000 of wheat, 39,700 'of rye, 786,000 of oats, 408,000 of potatoes, 945,000 pounds of tobacco, 12,800 tons of hay. The total value of these seven staple crops, grown on 822,293 acres, was $15,510,090, an average of $18.74 per acre. In 1874 the State had 162,500 horses, 83,600 mules, 256,000 cattle, 151,800 milch cows, 176,300 sheep, 960,500 swine. There were 49,359 farms, averaging 154 acres each.

Manufactures.-But little attention has been given to manufacturing. The last census gives 1079 establishments; hands employed, 3206; value of products, $4,629,234. For the manufacture of firearms there were 8 establishments, iron 2, leather 35, tobacco 4, boots and shoes 2, cotton goods 2, ginning cotton 283, wool-carding 13, flour and meal 272. There were 211 saw-mills, cutting 78,692,000 feet of lumber; value of timber, staves, shingles, etc., cut, $1,344,403.

Minerals and Mining.-The State geologist expresses the opinion that Arkansas is destined to take the lead of all the Western States in her resources of zinc and manganese. Anthracite, bituminous and cannel coal is found in considerable quantities; limestone is abundant; iron, lead, copper, gypsum, nitre-earths, kaoline (porcelain clay), granite, freestone, marble and slate exist in many localities. Near the hot springs is a quarry of oil-stone or Arkansas whetstone, said to be equal to any in the world. The saline springs yield an excellent quality of salt.

This State has no direct foreign commerce, but large quantities of cotton, corn, hides, wool, lumber, etc. are exported through New Orleans.

Railroads. In 1860 Arkansas had 38 miles of railroad. In 1873 this had increased to 700 miles; cost per mile, $63,296; receipts per mile, $1591; receipts per inhabitant, $1.73; total receipts, $927,609; total capital account, $36,901,408; cost of railroad and equipment, $35,721,095. In the adoption of the new Constitution provision was made for aiding, by an issue of bonds, five railroads to a length not exceeding 800 miles, at the rate of $10,000 and $15,000 per mile. The amount of these bonds will be about six millions of dollars.

Public Institutions and Education.-The Penitentiary, the Institute for the Blind and the Deaf Mute Institute are all located at Little Rock. The Industrial University, at Fayetteville, founded on the basis of the Congressional land grant, is to embrace four colleges and thirteen subordinate schools. A fine building, to accommodate 700 students, was erected in 1875. The entire property of the university is $300,000; number of students, 241. St. John's College, at Little Rock, has 102 students