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54. Each ship should be at proper distance immediately before and immediately after the prescribed change of course has been made. Never be appreciably too close when your next ahead reaches the turn. In order to avoid this, speed must be reduced, if necessary, when the evolution signal is hoisted, but remember that every reduction of speed causes some disturbance to ships astern. In large turns especially (90° to 180°) too little distance is uncomfortable and likely to result in your turning outside.

55. If you reduce speed before turning, because too close, then when beginning to turn or very soon thereafter, resume standard speed; otherwise, you will be sure to drop behind. In some circumstances even an increase of speed will be necessary.

56. Fault to Turn Late. It is an ugly fault to start a turn so late that even full rudder cannot prevent your ship over-running the correct bearing from the column leader.

57. Result of Late Turn. By making a turn too late, a ship increases the turning arc established by the column leader and this impedes correct turning by ships following, besides making the column ragged.

58. Stern. The stern of a ship while turning deviates outboard from the original track.

59. Steady Compass Course. Each ship should keep a steady compass course up to the turning point. If no suitable objects for the steersman are available ahead, and it is not possible to depend sufficiently upon the steering compass, look astern in order to detect at once any turning of the ship by the swinging of the stern to the right or left from the rest of the column following.

60. Chasing Tails. It is improper to maintain heading on the stern of your next ahead while the latter is making the turn.

61. The resulting effect of a ship chasing tails is to increase the tendency of following ships to sag away, thus making it almost impossible for them to turn correctly.

62. The marked swinging out of the stern of the ship ahead makes at first a rather alarming impression at the normal distance with the modern long ships. It takes some time before the stern begins to return again to the tangent; and, as your own ship, on account of the loss of speed of the ship ahead, will at first run up on her, you are likely to think that there is danger of collision. In reality, such is not the case if your ship is properly in station. Your ship, it is true, will approach rather near to the stern of the ship ahead, but as soon as you begin turning, the distance will be opened again by your own loss of speed and the taking up of speed by your next ahead.

63. Turning Point. Begin turning at exactly the same point as the column leader and not at the turning point of your next ahead if he turns short or outside.

64. Wake Rule on Turn. If your next ahead has turned properly keep your stem inside the rough water of his wake. The distance inside should be approximately equal to the beam of your ship.

65. Early vs. Late Turn. Better begin turning too soon than too late. Turning too soon may be easily rectified by easing the rudder and, if necessary, reducing the speed. When, for any reason, the rudder was moved too late, at once apply a larger angle and increase the speed, because otherwise you

will always drop behind. During the course of turning, notably during its last part, the observing of the angle between the column already formed on the new course and the midship line from the conning station to the stem, will furnish a good clue to determine whether the ship, with the rudder kept as it is, will still come around in time or not.

66. Do Not Repeat Errors of Ship Ahead. When the ship ahead, by faulty turning, goes outside the arc of turning of the column leader, take your direction from the column leader. If necessary, increase the amount of rudder in order not to come too close to the ship ahead. In turns up to 90 degrees in such a case, you may, without fear, head at first for the middle or even the bow of your next ahead. If need be, there always remain the stopping of the inboard engine and a reduction of speed. When the fault of the ship ahead is great, you will, in most cases, range alongside of her at a pretty close distance.

67. Hold Your Course. While your next ahead, having turned outside, returns to his station, the distance between his inner quarter and your bow may be a little close. You must not ease your rudder, if you are in station. Reduce speed, if necessary, but when doing so do not forget your next astern. 68. Increase Speed While Edging In. The ship edging into the column must increase her speed while so doing.

69. Get Turn in Hand. Upon all occasions, when turning in column, endeavor to get the turn well in hand. If your ship is inclined to turn short, the rudder can always be eased; but, if the turn is made too late, the rudder. has to be put hard over and once it is there no more can be done.

70. Start Turn Promptly. A ship must start her turn promptly even though it requires a hard over rudder to do so.

71. Check Bearing in Column. As a guide leading a division through a tideway, perhaps it is safer to put the ships of the column on a bearing from the guide, instead of allowing them to attempt to follow round in the wake of the next ahead; but, in all cases, every ship in the column should endeavor to pass over the same ground.

72. Fog. Do not drop astern of your station while in a fog.

73. Correct Errors on Turn. When making a simultaneous turn from column to line or to line of bearing, and vice-versa, check your distance from the guide and from the next ship towards the guide. Correct errors in distance during the turn.

74. Turn Rules. In simultaneous turns, ships must:

(a) Start the turn promptly when the signal is executed;

(b) Regulate their speed and rudder angle so that they will be in station

when they have swung to the prescribed heading;

(c) Remember that a change of the prescribed rudder angle generally necessitates a change of speed;

(d) Watch carefully their next towards the guide;

(e) Follow standard procedure for easing the rudder and meeting her;

(f) Not swing beyond the new heading.

75. Standard Speed and Rudder. The practice of rigorously adhering to the standard rudder and never changing the speed of the engines by signal from the bridge while turning is not correct. Standard rudder and standard speed is only a general rule and must be departed from as occasion requires.

76. Approaching Anchorage. Radical Speed Changes. When approaching an anchorage, or at any other time in formation, when the speed is much reduced and the ship is out of position, it should not be attempted to regain position by a small change of revolutions. The change should be radical for a short period of time, in order that the ship regain her station quickly. Remember that the speed of the ship is not, necessarily, equivalent to the speed of the engines. Considerable time is required to overcome the momentum of a heavy ship. When a ship is at rest, or nearly so, slow speed for regaining position is of little more value than getting out an oar. To produce results quickly, the engines must be worked with considerable power.

77. Backing without Swinging. When it is intended to back the engines while the ship is going ahead, if there is time, the ship should be first going steadily on her course, with rudder amidships. If the ship is swinging at all, she will swing more violently in the same direction as soon as the engines are backed and the only way that this swing can be checked is by going ahead full speed on both engines with the rudder hard over, and as soon as the bow starts swinging in the other direction, reverse the engines and the ship will come back to her course. The handling of the ship under such conditions must be prompt.

78. Swinging Stern. When anchoring in succession or when approaching another ship, and it is desired that the ship's stern shall swing in a particular direction, the swing must be started before engines are backed. The ship may be relied upon to continue that swing after the engines start backing.

79. Anchoring Backing Power. When anchoring in formation, as well as when approaching an anchorage in a crowded harbor, or the vicinity of other ships, a ship should maintain plenty of steam pressure, in order to have ample backing power to control the ship in case of emergency.

80. Never Snub Chain. In anchoring, a ship should never be snubbed by the chain. The momentum of such a heavy weight is great even at low speed and may be relied upon as sufficient to part or weaken the chain. Chain should be veered until way is lost then hove in as necessary.

81. Approach Anchorage Boldly. When anchorage water is clear, ships, whether in formation or not, should approach the anchorage boldly. Nothing looks worse, or is more indicative of timidity and lack of self-confidence on the part of the Commanding Officer, than to drift up to the anchorage, under barely steerageway, with a ship or ships which handle quickly, thereby losing control of the ship as well as position in formation.

82. Let Go Anchor with Execution Signal. All ships should anchor simultaneously the instant the anchorage signal is executed. It is unfair to

your next astern if you "hang on" to make up lost distance and he has properly obeyed the signal.

83. To Moor. To moor in a harbor:

(a) Steady your ship on the anchorage bearing;

(b) Then devote your attention to letting go the first anchor;

(c) Do not snub the chain, but have plenty of way on and let the chain lay itself out straight;

(d) Endeavor to have the ship at rest just after the second anchor has been let go;

(e) Then go full speed astern, keeping in mind your next astern.

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Generally speaking, the longer and heavier the tow-line used, the easier the towing will be. A decided dip or "catenary" gives the same advantage here as in the case of a vessel riding at anchor with a good scope of chain;-that is to say, the sagging bight acts as an elastic spring, preventing variations in the tersion from being thrown upon the line in sudden jerks; and the sag of the bight depends not only on its length but on its weight. Unfortunately, however, too great weight is a serious inconvenience in handling and running lines. This is the principal objection to chain-cable, which in many ways is an ideal tow-line. Another objection is that if the vessels are obliged to stop, the weight of the chain may prove sufficient to drag them into collision. In the excellent work on Seamanship by Captains Todd and Whall, the use of chain-cable (alone) is recommended for all cases of heavy towing; one of the authors testifying to its availability as the result of his own experience upon several occasions. This is high authority, but the present author has collected the views of more than forty prominent shipmasters, every one of whom says that under no circumstances would he attempt to tow by chain alone, unless compelled to do so.

Wire-rope is very convenient for handling, and makes an excellent tow-line for smooth water, but is much too light to give a satisfactory spring for all-around work under ordinary conditions. All of its advantages may be realized and its disadvantages eliminated, by the use of a Towing Engine, which sub

'Observe that the dip does not in the least reduce the tension of steady towing. What it does is to furnish an elastic link between the ships, by which the forces already described as arising in a seaway are absorbed gradually instead of being thrown upon the line with the suddenness and disastrous effect of "impact."

stitutes the elasticity of steam pressure for that due to a long and heavy line. This will be referred to at greater length hereafter.

Both chain and wire have a serious disadvantage in that they are not buoyant, as are lines made from vegetable fiber.

Manila, while heavy enough to give a good dip if used in sufficient length, is not too heavy for convenient handling and its buoyancy is a great advantage, particularly where lines are to be run by boats or hauled across over considerable distances. It is, upon the whole, the most satisfactory line that can be used for moderate towing; but although heavier than wire of corresponding strength, it is still much too light for towing in a seaway. Its weight is increased in some cases by hanging a good sized kedge to the bight between the two ships;-a device which is evidently available with wire, as well as with manila. A more common plan is to use a combination of chain-cable with a manila or wire hawser, or both, the hawser being made fast to the towing ship and the chain-cable paid out by the tow.

When the conditions for getting the lines across from one ship to the other are fairly good, a combination of wire and chain is perhaps the best; but in bad weather, or when, for any reason, the ships cannot come close together for running the lines, the buoyancy of manila-its "floatability"-shows up as an enormous advantage, especially where the vessel which is to receive the line, get it on board, and secure it, is a small craft, such as a destroyer. The use of a manila hauling line helps out, but cannot do away with the difficulties connected with dragging a wireline across a long stretch of water and securing it on the cramped forecastle of a small vessel which is perhaps plunging into a heavy sea. A good plan is to combine manila and wire, the towing vessel first paying out the manila line, which is hauled across by the tow and secured, after which the towing ship shackles the wire-line to the manila and starts ahead very slowly, paying out the wire-line as she gathers way.

For towing even a vessel as small as a destroyer in rough weather-and it must not be forgotten that rough weather may be encountered in almost any towing expedition—the full length

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