For Testimonials and particulars, apply to ANDREW BELL & COMPANY, LIMITED. Carr Hall Iron Works, HASLINGDEN, LANCASHIRE. STAMP YOUR BOTTLES, PACKETS, PARCELS, PAPER, PILL-BOXES, JARS, &c., EY WATTS'S FLEXIBLE STAMP. The impressions may be gilt, which gives a most elegant appearance to Glass, China, &c., and does not wear off. Price 5/6, post free, or for Stamping in Gold, 6/6. Send for Specimens of Work to W. F. WATTS, CLAPHAM, S.W. N.B. Instructions for Patients stamped upon bottles look very effective, and are stamped in less time than gumming a label. WILLIAM HARVEY, Plymouth Tar & Chemical Works, CATTEDOWN, PLYMOUTH. Maker of Refined Anthracene, Naphtha (Crude and Rectified), Creosote, Lubricating Oils, Grease, Disinfecting Powder, Pitch and all Tar Products, Sulphate of Ammonia. CRUDE ANTHRACENE, &C., PURCHASED. JOSEPH GILLOTT'S STEEL PENS. Sold by all Dealers throughout the World. COAL-TAR PRODUCTS. BENZOLES, TOLUOLES, and NAPHTHAS (of all Classifications). CARBOLIC ACID, ANTHRACENE, &c., &c., JOHN CLARKSON MAJOR, (ESTABLISHED 1851). S. A. SADLER, CHEMICAL NEWS, Jan. 14, 1876. CLEVELAND CHEMICAL WORKS, MIDDLESBROUGH; Newfali Tar Works, Carlton; and Ammonia Works, Stockton-on-Tees. Manufacturer of Benzole, Toluole, Xylol, Solvent and Burning Naphthas, Carbolic Acid and Disinfecting Powder, Refined Anthracene, Naphthaline, Black Varnish, Refined Tar, Crude Liquid Ammonia, Galvanising Salts, Coal-Tar, Pitch, Creosote, Grease, &c., &c. S. A. S. is always a buyer of Coal-Tar Naphthas, Crude Anthracene and all Tar Products. All communications to be addressed to the offices at Middlesbrough. JOHN PAGE, (Late Page & Tibbs), 47, BLACKFRIARS ROAD, S.E., Continues to supply the Trade with Phosphorus, Chlorate of Potash, Pure Acids, Pyrotechnic and all other Chemicals, Pure and Commercia at the Lowest Prices. SPECIAL QUOTATIONS ON APPLICATION. SPENCE BROTHERS CHEMICAL Co. LIM., Manufacturers of LIQUOR AMMONIA, SULPHATE of AMMONIA, VITRIOL, Brown and Rectified, ALUM CAKE, &c., &c. MAWSON AND SWAN Makers of every description of Chemical, Colliery, Copper Ore, Gold Mining and Glass Machinery, including Crown, German Sheet, and Plate Glass Plant, as supplied to some of the largest Firms in Engiand Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Makers of the latest Improved Revolving Black Ash Furnace with Siemens's Patent Gas Arrangement, and as used in the Manufacture of Soda. Improved Valveless Air Engines, and Pumps or Acid Forcing, Air Agitators, Compressors for Collieries, and Weldon's Patent Chlorine Caustic, Chlorate, Decomposing, and Oxalic Pans. Gas Producers for Heating Furnaces. Chemical Works, Wolverhampton. Process, EXTRACTOR OF COAL-TAR PRODUCTS. Pyrites Burners for Irish, Norwegian, and Spanish Ores. JAMES WOOLLEY, SONS, & CO., Improved Steam Sulphur Pans. 69, MARKET STREET, MANCHESTER, DEALERS IN CHEMICAL AND SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS CHEMICAL REAGENTS, &c., OR THE Use of ANALYSTS, SCIENCE TEACHERS, AND MANUFACTURERS. Price Lists on application. CHEMICAL NEWS, Jan. 21, 1876. THE CHEMICAL NEWS. Fig. 2 to show that the force in action is not induced VOL. XXXII. No. 843. THE NEW PHASE OF ELECTRIC FORCE. PROFESSOR E. J. HOUSTON has kindly forwarded to us an early proof of an article he has contributed to the January number of the Journal of the Franklin Institute. Before, however, referring at length to his experiments we will reproduce from the Scientific American three diagrams of the apparatus used by Mr. Edison during his experiments. Mr. Edison and his assistants were experimenting with a vibrator magnet consisting of a bar of steel fastened at one end, and made to vibrate by means of a magnet when they saw a spark coming from the core of the magnet so bright that they suspected something more than induction. Fig. 1. The vibrator and battery were then placed on insulated stands, and the wire connected with x (Fig. 1) was carried over to the stove about 20 feet distant. On rubbing the end of the wire against the stove, splendid sparks were observed. With the wire permanently connected with the stove, sparks could be drawn from any part of the stove with a piece of metal held in the hand. Again, while the FIG. 2. An experiment was made with the apparatus figured in electricity. All the parts are insulated except the gas fixture. A is the battery; B, a common telegraphic key; C, an electro-magnet; D, a bar of cadmium (or other metal, cadmium being the best) supported by an insulated stand; E is a mirror galvanometer; F, the gas pipe; G, a dark box enclosing pencils with graphite points (common lead-pencils). The unknown current passes from the bar of cadmium through the galvanometer without causing the slightest deflection, and-notwithstanding the gas pipe connection, which would drain the wire of induced electricity, if there were any-bright sparks are visible between the graphite points in response to the motion of the telegraphic key. Standing on an insulated stool, the experimenters draw sparks from the following arrangement (Fig. 3), in which x is the end of the vibrator (which, as well as the battery, is insulated); A, a secondary battery; B, a 200 ohm coil or copper wire; C is a block of iron, and D, a condenser, all well insulated except A, which is of glass, and stands on the table. In another experiment a glass rod four feet long with a piece of carbon fixed to one end, was well rubbed with a silk handkerchief over a hot stove, and the carbon point presented to the apparatus, the other end of the rod being held in the hand with the handkerchief; sparks were drawn, yet the galvanometer chemical paper, the sense of 24 New Phase of Electric Force. phenomena, observed by himself as well as by Mr. Edison; and he pointed out in what particulars the new spark is similar to some forms of electricity, and in what it appears to differ from the various known forms of that force. Like a true scientist, he pointed out that only such phenomena as every competent experimenter is able to verify at any time are worth consideration; and he spoke of the sources of illusion and delusion which misled Reichenbach, and afterwards others who asserted that they had verified his alleged discovery of the so-called odic force. In 1871 Professor Houston published the description of some experiments* which bear, both in method and results, a partial resemblance to those by Mr. Edison. The original experiments, made with a Ruhmkorff induction coil, capable of throwing the induced spark six inches in free air, have now been repeated by Professors Houston and Elihu Thomson. The results are thus described by Professor Houston : The induction coil was worked by means of an electropoin battery of ten cells coupled for an intensity of ten. The elements of each cell consist of a single plate of zinc placed between two plates of carbon. The available surface in each cell is about three by six inches. One pole of the battery was placed in metallic connection with a gas-pipe and the other in similar connection with a large insulated conductor. On working the interrupting break-piece a torrent of characteristic white sparks of condensed electricity passed between the platinum points of the coil. Under these circumstances, that is, while the discharges were occurring between the points, sparks could be drawn from all metallic objects in the same room with the coil, or in adjoining rooms. The sparks were especially noticeable when metallic objects were approached to the gas- or water-pipes of the building, or to metallic surfaces in connection therewith, as in the case of the pneumatic trough, steam-engines, and boiler before mentioned. As already implied, actual contact between the gas- and water-pipes and one of the wires leading from the coil, was unnecessary, as distinct sparks were afforded by a stove in the same room, and from another in an adjoining room. might be obtained. Fourth. The so-called retroaction of the spark was distinctly observed. On looping a wire back on itself, a decided spark was seen at the point of contact made by the end of the wire with any portion of the wire itself. All the above results are in strict accordance with the known laws of electricity, as will appear hereafter. To still further compare these results with those obtained by Mr. Edison, we dispensed with the use of the induction coil, and employed an apparatus similar to that described by him, viz.,: An electro-magnet in connection with the battery already mentioned, the current of which was rendered intermittent by means of an ordinary interrupter. With this arrangement, a wire in contact with the core of the magnet yielded sparks having all the properties described by Mr. Edison. From a careful reading of the published accounts of Mr. * Journal of the Franklin Institute, June, 1871. CHEMICAL NEWS, Edison and Dr. Beard, it appears that the alleged discovery of a new force is based on their failure to obtain from the sparks indications of electrical charges or currents; or in other words, in the apparent absence of electric polarity. All the effects noticed, however, are readily explainable by reference to the presence of an instantaneous outgoing current, immediately followed by an incoming one, with the complete re-establishment of electrical equilibrium. When we bear in mind the enormous velocity of electrical currents of this character, probably some hundred thousand miles per second, we can readily understand that the flow and reversion of the current would take place in an exceedingly small fraction of a second; a space of time sufficient, were the current merely direct, to produce any decided divergence of the leaves of the electroscope or the needle of the galvanometer. The presence of the inverse current, immediately following the direct current, would absolutely and necessarily prevent the exhibition of electrical polarity as exhibited in the motion of the electroscopes, galvanometers, and of similar instruments. It is doubtless due to the fact that the direct and inverse currents are opposite in their effects, and therefore produce instantaneous electrical equilibrium, that Mr. Edison failed to obtain the characteristic twitching of frogs' legs or the discolouration of iodised paper; for, although these results would unquestionably follow an electric current in one direction, their presence would be masked by the opposite effects produced by the instantaneously following inverse current. currents, as above described, may be questioned; but when The possibility of the existence of the direct and inverse we bear in mind that the sparks can only be obtained by the interruption of the battery current, and that it is necessary to pass the battery current through a long coil of wire, conditions in every way favourable to the production of instantaneous induced or extra currents, the direct and the inverse currents follow as a matter of necessity; for the induced or extra currents in the coil of wire necessarily produce, in the core of the magnet and the metallic wire tion, instantaneously followed on the cessation of the inin connection therewith, an electrical current in one direcduced or extra current, by a current in the opposite direction for the re-establishment of the electric equilibrium in the cores of the magnet. that the induced current produced at the moment of making contact with the interrupter flows in the opposite direction to that produced on breaking the contact. This fact would in itself, exclusive of the above explanation, be sufficient to account for the production of inverse cnrrents in the core of the magnet, when the interruption of the battery current was sufficiently rapid. Dr. Beard admits that the phenomena may be referred to a somewhat similar explanation, but the value he attaches to his supposition may be judged from his subsequent adoption of the term "apolic force" as a preferable term to "etheric It is a fact well known to all versed in electrical science force.". It is matter of surprise to us that both Mr. Edison and Dr. Beard endeavoured by careful insulation to eliminate electricity or induction, since it is a recognised fact in in the apparatus employed by them the effects of induced electrical science that the more perfect the insulation the more decided the effects of induction, of which, perhaps, no better instance could be found than the care taken to thoroughly insulate the secondary coils in the induction on Ruhmkorff apparatus. In view of the above considerations, we feel warranted in the belief that all the phenonomena noticed by Mr. Edison and Dr. Beard are explainable by the presence of inverse electrical currents of considerable quantity, but comparatively small intensity, instantaneously produced at the making or breaking of the battery circuit. There was noticed during the progress of our experiments with the induction coil the following curious phenomenon, which appears to us favourable to the explanations we have adduced. One of the poles of the coil was connected with a gas-pipe, and the other with an insulated conductor of considerable surface in the room containing the Ruhmkorff core. This room is in connection by a telegraph wire with the chemical laboratory on the floor below, and with an earth circuited station, D, in another building, about 500 feet distant in a direct line. On the interrupter of the coil being worked, a peculiar clicking sound was heard, by both of us in the line wite in the chemical laboratory. The operator at D was requested to observe whether any unusual phenomena were noticed at his instrument. He at once telegraphed to us that a distic" tinkling sound" was heard, which did not vary whether the ordinary battery current of the line was opened or closed. Since he did not know what to expect, his confirmation of our observation was very satisfactory. The production of the sound is probably referable to a rapid succession of molecular changes produced in the wire by the sudden reversion of its electrical states. Central High School, Philadelphia, December 11, 1875. REPORT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS DURING THE LAST TEN YEARS.* By Dr. A. W. HOFMANN. (Continued from p. 13.) THE Science of physics reveals three procedures by which a reduction of temperature can be effected, ice being the result if the cooling is sufficiently intense and is applied to water. The methods in question are:-The solution of solids (salts); the spontaneous evaporation of liquids; and the expansion of aëriform bodies. Each of these methods has met with practical applications; the firstmentioned or solution-process for reducing the temperature of small mass in simple apparatus not acting continuously; the two others, evaporation and expansion, for the uninterrupted production of ice in complicated machines. I. Cold obtained by Solution. Every mixture of substances in proportion as it produces, during solution, the greatest depression of temperature in its own mass is called a freezing mixture. Various mixtures of this kind have long been known, and may be found described in all text-books of physics. The best known and most commonly applied both in domestic and technical affairs pre-supposes the presence of ice. It consists of 3 parts of ice and I of common salt, which dissolve each other, whilst the the temperature falls to -21°, the freezing-point of a concentrated solution of chloride of sodium. The solution of a part only of the mixture is requisite to produce this low temperature in the entire mass. Not till heat penetrates from without into the mass does a further melting take place, the temperature remaining the same. Consequently the above degree of cold may be kept up till all the ice has been melted with the salt. It is necessary, however, to keep the mixture continually agitated. This snow and salt-freezing mixture is used in preparing ice-creams, for which a temperature of about -12° is required. As the essential point here is the congelation of water and the other substances present may be neglected, as far, at least, as their specific and latent heat is concerned, it is easy to calculate what weight of ice-cream may be prepared with a known quantity of freezing mixture. The freezing apparatus of the confectioners consists of a tin vessel for receiving the ingredients, placed in a larger bath of wood or tinned copper. The interval is filled with ice and salt, which are constantly stirred that the mutual contact of the two may be perfect. If this is "Berichte über die Entwickelung der Chemischen Industrie Während des Letzten Jahrzehends." neglected the salt, after a portion of the solution has been formed, sinks to the bottom and ceases to act upon the ice. Since about 1865 a freezing apparatus for domestic use has been introduced from Paris arranged as follows:A cylindrical pewter vessel with double sides is fitted in the middle of a jacket with two pivots, which rest upon two supports fixed in a block of wood. One of the pivots is prolonged so as to form a handle which serves to keep the cylinder in continual rotatlon. The two plane ends of the cylinder are disks of wood, which are pressed upon the cylinder by a peculiar arrangement, india-rubber rings being used to preserve complete tightness. The interval between the double sides of the cylinder is filled with a bad conductor of heat. A cone of pewter is introduced into the interior, and can be opened on one side to receive the materials for the ice-cream; the annular interstice is filled with salt and ice, which are introduced from the other side. The lid is put on, and the handle is turned for about five minutes. The lid of the cream receiver is then taken off, and the matter which has become deposited on its inner aides is scraped off with a spatula and stirred up with the still unfrozen residue to a butter-like consistence. The apparatus is closed again, turned for five minutes, opened again, and the contents stirred up as before an operation which is repeated a third time. In a quarter of an hour the ice-cream is ready. The apparatus acts satisfactorily, but it is troublesome and rather costly. (To be continued.) A STUDY OF HYDROCARBONS. THERE are two methods by which we may approach this great subject:-One is to grapple with the minutiae of details, and thence to try and reduce the interminable chaos to some ordinal principles of classification; and thus it is that acids are grouped according to some ideas of monatomic, diatomic, and polyatomic peculiarities; and the same with alcohols; and between these are more neutral groupings of aldehyds, ketones, quinons, paraffins, olefines, &c., and each series with their corresponding primary, secondary, tertiary, and other subdivisions, while an immense cloud of hypothesis darkens the whole proceeding, and graphic, constitutional, and other efforts of atomic disposition are freely put in requisition, as if to reduce the void to some elements of classification. This system may be profitably studied in the recent and very valuable works of Armstrong and Schorlemmer. Another, an older and simpler way, with far less of pretension and hypothesis, is to subordinate very much of all this minutiæ, and to aim at some general grasp of the whole principle of "radical" behaviours; so that, upon this solid basis, the minutiae of fact and experiment may supervene, to fill in the rugged outline, and stamp it with that quality of simplicity and beauty which—in all departments of human enquiry-is the polar star which both impels and rewards the highest efforts of human labour. Nor let it be supposed that this aspect looks with coldness upon the Herculean efforts which are so ably summarised in the works referred to, which are published at a popular price out of all proportion to their intrinsic worth; nor should it be thought that we would lessen by one tittle these great efforts to ascertain the meaning of those isomeric or allotropic differences which now multiply at every step. But we do think it is high time that some safe guiding principle should be selected to harmonise the past and fructify the future. The artificial production of the beautiful "Turkey-red" may well be looked upon as one of the proudest triumphs of modern chemistry; but to one who has closely watched the teeming memoirs and public lectures devoted to its So Perkin, Schunck, and others believe in analogous type representations! Anthraquinon is therefore and alizarin or, after Graebe, C14H6 HO, HO, C14H6O2 HO HO, (02. C14H6HO)2. M. Faust has been engaged for some years past upon a very analogous substance called frangulinic acid at one time he is busy trying to find out whether it has 2 or 3 atoms of hydroxylно. HO C14H7O2 HO or C14H502 HO. HO. It seems clear, first of all, that the acid by deoxidation yields anthracen, thus establishing a kinship with alizarin; then we find the glucoside from the bark of Rhamnus frangula contains the elements of Acid + Glucose -2HOC28H9O8,O.HO C12H12012 Frangulin. C12H10O10 C28H9 O8 (C40H19018)O,HO. Why not digest this acid with ammonia, under the light of a thousand analogies, and obtain the amide (C28H9O8) H2N, or similarly with aniline, to obtain the corresponding anilide: a very strong corroboration is found in the tendency of the acid to condensation when the diacid appears to contain the elements of C56H17016,O.HO or C28H8O8 (C28H9O8 = (C56H17016). Alizarin and purpurin, in all probability, have a similar glucoside origin, but the derivation in that sense is not so clearly made out. Perkin has obtained a triacetyl purpurin which contains the following elements:Purpurin 3 Acetic acid - 6HO= C28H7O8,O.HO C4H3O2,O.HO C28H4081 The presumption is irresistible that the alizarin amide would contain C28H7O6,H2N, and similarly with purpurin. That such would easily and almost eertainly result is evidenced by a wide range of collateral facts connected with the following hydrocarbons : Benzol Series. C12H5,H The No. 1 of the anthracen series is not anthracen, and it is more usual in lists of this character to lead off with the hydrocarbon of the next higher series, as if it were at all necessary to eliminate 2H before inserting the 20. This first step, however, in the oxy-progression is almost wholly ignored, and a quinon body, No. 3, is supposed to result from the elimination of H2 and their replacement by the divalent group (O2), &c. Such lists can be projected in several ways, according to the object in view, and we offer the following :-(See Table below). No. I gives the hydrides of ethyl, phenyl, toluyl, &c., and many intermediates might he added, as also chrysen and others beyond. No. 2 gives aldehyd, quinon aldehyd, benzoic aldehyd, and the aldehyds of naphthaquinon and anthraquinon. That a similarity of type and general properties may here subsist all through there can be no question. No. 3 gives acetic, collic, and benzoic acids, naphthaquinon, and anthraquinon. With a greater knowledge of minutiæ than we at all pretend to in this superficial survey, it is quite feasible that the terms collic and benzoic acid, as associated with the two quinons, would have to be replaced by quinon and salicylol, or some other isomers. We use these terms merely as representative of their types, and claim for the series all the regularity and interest attaching to No. 2. No. 4 gives glycollic acid, an oxy-quinon body, represented by chloranilic acid, oxy-benzoic acid, oxy-naphthaquinon, and oxy-anthraquinon. No. 5 gives glyoxylic acid, dioxy-benzoic acid, naphthazarin, and lizaric acid or alizarin. No. 6 gives gallic acid, trioxo-naphthaquinon, and purpurin. No. 7 gives oxy-gallic acid, tetraoxy-naphthaquinon, and oxy-purpurin or rufiopin. Now, why is it that some of these isomers are regarded as comparatively neutral or aldehydic bodies, while others of the same composition are more definitely acid? Many have little hesitation in responding to this enquiry; but it is discouraging to observe how variously the atoms are arranged, according to the particular views entertained. Our position is one of far less pretension, and if we greatly extend the "hydrate" type it is only to express or classify a very wide series of relationship. There are two directions in which we should look for and a similar tribenzoyl compound, and speaks of a simi-isomeric differences of individual properties:- |