tua several years. In the adjacent museum are some good Greek busts and sarcophagi, and the Museo Patrio possesses other antiquities. A statue of Dante and the house of Giulio Romano are shown as attractions to the visitor in Mantua. The city has a theological institute, a botanical garden, an astronomical observatory, a public library with 80,000 volumes, and an excellent, commodious military hospital. The trade and manufactures are unimportant. Population (commune), in 1901, 29,142.

HISTORY. Mantua was originally an Etruscan city. It became a Roman municipium just before the time of Vergil, who was born in the neighboring village of Andes. The town rose to importance in the twelfth century, when it became one of the city republics and a member of the Lombard League. Toward the close of the thirteenth century began the rule of the House of Bonaccolsi, who was succeeded in 1328 by the House of Gonzaga. A century later Mantua with its territory was erected into a marquisate, and from 1530 the Gonzagas were dukes of Mantua. The State prospered greatly under this dynasty, its political power and territory being increased at the expense of Venice and Milan. The Gonzagas were liberal patrons of the arts and learning. After the Mantuan War of Succession (1628-30) the city began to decline. The last Duke was driven away in 1703 and died in 1708, and Mantua fell to Austria. The French took the city in 1797. It was left to the Austrians by the Treaty of Villafranca (1859), and was ceded to Italy 1866. During the Austrian occupation it was of great military importance and constituted one of the so-called Quadrilateral of fortresses, the others being Verona, Legnago, and Peschiera. See GONZAGA, HOUSE OF.

MANTUAN BARD, MANTUAN SWAN. Titles applied to Vergil in allusion to his birthplace, Mantua.

MANU, mäʼnoo (from Skt. manu, man). An ancient mythical sage of India, the progenitor of mankind, according to the Hindus, and the reputed author of the great law-book known as the Code of Manu (Skt. Mânava-Dharma-Sāstra). There is no good ground for accepting the existence of Manu as a historical personage. In the Rig Veda he is merely the ancestor of the human race, the first one to offer a sacrifice to the gods. In the Satapatha Brahmana and in the Mahabharata he alone survives the universal deluge. In the first chapter of the law-book asIcribed to him, he declares himself to have been produced by Viraj, who was an offspring of the Supreme Being, and to have created all this universe. Hindu mythology knows, moreover, a succession of Manus, each of whom created, in his own period, the world anew after it had perished at the end of a mundane age.

The Manava-Dharma-Săstra, written in verse, is a collection of religious ordinances, customs, and traditions, such as would naturally grow up by established usage and receive divine sanction in course of time. This work is not a mere lawbook in the European sense of the word; it is likewise a system of cosmogony; it propounds metaphysical doctrines, teaches the art of government, and treats of the state of the soul after death. In short, it is the religious, secular, and spiritual code of Brahmanism. It is divided into twelve books. The chief topics are

the following: (1) Creation; (2) education and the duties of a pupil, or the first order; (3) marriage and the duties of a householder, or the second order; (4) means of subsistence, and personal morality; (5) diet, purification, and the duties of women; (6) the duties of an anchorite and an ascetic, or the duties of the third and fourth orders; (7) government, and the duties of a king and the military caste; (8) judicature and law, private and criminal; (9) continuation of the former, and the duties of the commercial and servile castes; (10) mixed castes and the duties of the castes in time of distress; (11) penance and expiation; (12) transmigration and final beatitude.

The text of Manu has often been edited and translated, as by Jolly, Mānava-Dharma-Sāstra (London, 1887), by Mandlik, with seven native commentaries (Bombay, 1886), and in the series of the Nirnaya Sagara Press (Bombay, 1887). There are several translations; especially by Bühler, The Laws of Manu (Oxford, 1886); and by Burnell and Hopkins, The Ordinances of Manu (London, 1884). Consult, also, Hopkins, Mutual Relations of the Four Castes According to the Mānavadharmaçāstram (Leipzig, 1881); Joly, Recht und Sitte (Strassburg, 1896).

MANUAL (Lat. manualis, relating to the hand, from manus, hand). The keyboard of an organ played by the hands, in contradistinction to the pedal, played by the feet. The number of manuals varies from two to four according to the size of the organ. In older French organs

even five manuals are found. The names of the different manuals are: (1) Great organ; (2) choir-manual; (3) swell-manual; (4) solo-manual; (5) echo-manual. Each manual really is a separate organ in itself, having its own set of pipes and stops. By means of couplers any or all of the manuals can be connected, so that by striking a note on one manual the same note sounds on all the other manuals that are

coupled. The usual compass of manuals is four octaves and a fifth, C-g3.

In

MANUAL OF ARMS. A text-book of rules and explanations for the instruction of military recruits in the use of their arms and their care and preservation. The Manual of Arms owes much of its elaborateness, both in the United States and England, to its German origin. In this connection it is interesting to note that while the manual remains practically unchanged in the two former countries, the exercise in Germany has dwindled to three positions, viz.: Slope arms, order arms, and present arms. the United States Army all drills are prefaced and concluded with an examination of cartridge chambers, as a precaution against accidents, and for purposes of instruction the movements are divided into motions, and executed in detail. The command of execution determines the prompt execution of the first motion, and the commands Tiro, Three, etc., the other motions. The commands and movements of the manual of arms are given after the soldier is in position with rifle at the order, and are as follows: (1) Order arms; (2) carry arms; (3) present arms; (4) Other right shoulder arms; (5) port arms. movements are: (6) Parade-rest; (7) fix bayonets; (8) charge bayonets.

MANUAL TRAINING. This term, in spite of considerable criticism, has come to be gener

ally applied to the use of constructive hand work in the schools, as a feature of general education. The term is broadly used to include the work of both boys and girls in various materials, in which case instruction in domestic art and science is understood, but it is often used in a narrower sense as relating only to the work with tools commonly given to boys.

The earliest official recognition of manual training as a legitimate part of school work was obtained in European countries. As early as 1858, Uno Cygnæus organized a plan of manual training for the primary schools of Finland, and in 1866 instruction in some branch of manual work was made compulsory in the training colleges for male teachers in that country, and in all primary schools for boys in country districts. Sweden is, however, the country which contributed most toward the early development of manual training, and from which has come the largest influence in its propagation. In 1872 the Government reached the conclusion that schools for instruction in Sloyd were necessary to counteract the tendency toward concentration in cities, and the decline of the old home industries. The schools first established had naturally an economic rather than an educational significance. This was changed, however, as the movement grew, until a thoroughly organized scheme of educational tool work for boys between twelve and fifteen years of age was developed. In 1877 the work was introduced into the folkschool, and the Government granted aid in support of the instruction. In 1897 it is reported that Sloyd instruction was given in about 2000 schools. The Sloyd Seminarium at Nääs, established in 1874 under the direction of Otto Soloman, has not only been an active and stimulating force in the development of the work in Sweden, but has exercised a far-reaching influence upon the thought and practice of other countries. At present Sloyd is taught in all the regular normal schools of the country.

In France manual training was made obligatory in the elementary primary schools by the law of 1882. The official programme for manual training is very complete and thorough, but its provisions are only partially realized because of the failure of communes to provide workshops, and of the insufficient supply of trained teachers. In Paris one hundred and twenty-four schools were equipped with workshops in 1897-98, and at this time one-third of the regular teachers in the city schools had taken normal courses in manual training. A feature of the French work is the variety of materials and processes used, and the fact that hand-work instruction has been planned for every grade of the elementary primary school.

Germany, although the seat of a very active propaganda issuing from the German Association for Manual Training for Boys, has done very little toward incorporating manual training with the regular work of the common schools. A large number of workshops have been established in various parts of the Empire, supported mainly by individuals and societies, in which pupils of the public schools are given instruction out of school hours. The educational ministries of Prussia, Saxony, and Baden now make annual contributions in aid of this instruction, but the work is obligatory in only a very few places. Manual work for girls, on the other hand, has

been for a long time a compulsory branch of instruction in the common schools of Germany. The Manual Training Seminary at Leipzig, founded in 1887 by the Association for Manual Training for Boys, under the leadership of Dr. Waldemar Götze, is the active centre of the movement, and the main institution for the training of teachers. The history of manual training in the United States involves both the development of the idea and the development of practice. Expressions of the layman's point of view are presented in such books as the following: Ham, Manual Training (London, 1886); McArthur, Education in its Relation to Manual Industry (New York, 1884); Jacobson, Higher Ground (Chicago, 1888). In the field of practice, little of a purely educational character appeared before 1878, at which time the Workingman's School was founded by the Ethical Culture Society of New York. This institution comprised a kindergarten and an elementary school, in which manual work formed from the first a vital and important part of the educational scheme. The general movement, however, took its large beginning, as has been the case with so many educational movements, at the top instead of the bottom of the school system. In 1880, through the efforts of Dr. Calvin A. Woodward, the Saint Louis Manual Training School was opened in connection with Washington University. The work of this school attracted wide attention, and its success led to the speedy organization of similar schools in other large cities: Chicago, Baltimore, and Toledo, 1884; Philadelphia, 1885; Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Omaha, 1886. The first provision for girls' work in these schools was made in the case of the Toledo school, and included sewing, dressmaking, millinery, and cooking. In 1895 the Massachusetts Legislature, under the lead of the State Board of Education, made it obligatory upon every city in the State of 30,000 or more inhabitants to establish and maintain manual training in a high school.

The rapid development of this type of secondary school has resulted in an institution peculiarly American. In other countries the introduction and spread of manual training has been confined to the elementary school, and no institution exists in Europe, of a purely educational character, that presents any parallel to the comprehensive and costly equipment of these schools. The shopwork comprises joinery, turning, pattern-making, forging, and machine work, and sometimes foundry practice and tinsmithing. The nature of this work has been very similar in the various schools, and until late years has been almost uniformly based upon the principles of the 'Russian System.' The central idea of this system of shopwork instruction, developed in a technical school for the instruction of engineers, is the analysis of a craft into its elementary processes and constructions, and the presentation of these details in an orderly and sequential scheme as separate elements. Compared with the development of manual training in the high school, the introduction of the work in the public elementary school came at first but slowly. Experimental classes in carpentry, the expense for which was borne by Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, were conducted at the Dwight School in Boston, in 1882. These were taken under the care of the city and transferred to temporary quarters in the English High School building in 1884, but

the work did not receive a place in the course of study until 1888. In Springfield, Mass., sewing was introduced in the schools in 1884, and in 1886 a manual training school was established, at which pupils coming voluntarily from the elementary schools received instruction in knifework. In 1885 the Legislature of New Jersey passed a law providing that the State would duplicate any amount between $500 and $5000 raised by a city or town for instruction in manual training. This led to the early introduction of the work in a number of places in various parts of the State. In 1888 the city of New York began the introduction of a manual training course of study, including drawing, sewing, cooking, and woodwork.

A

All this early work was crude and experimental, and it was not until the influence emanating from the Sloyd School of Boston began to be felt that tool work for boys in the elementary school took on a more definite character. vital principle of the Sloyd work is the appeal to the interest of the worker through the construction of a finished object of definite use related, generally, to the needs of home life. This principle has gained general acceptance in the work of the elementary school, and has to quite an extent modified the character of the work done in the high schools. From the upper grades of the grammar school with the provisions for shopwork for boys, and cooking and sewing for girls, hand work has made considerable progress in its way downward. Work in clay, paper, cardboard, sewing, weaving, basketry, bent iron, and simple wood construction are the processes most commonly employed.

Consult: Dewey, The School and Society (Chicago, 1899); James, Talks to Teachers on Psychology (New York, 1899); Parker, Talks on Pedagogics (New York, 1894); Salomon, The Theory of Educational Sloyd (Boston, 1896); Ware, The Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry (New York, 1901); and the Proceedings of the National Educational Association. Data on the early history of the movement in the United States are contained in part ii. of the Report upon Education in the Industrial and Fine Arts in the United States, issued by the United States Bureau of Education.

MANU'CHE, or MANUCCI, COSMO. An English dramatist of the seventeenth century. It appears that he was aided in his literary endeavors by James Compton, Earl of Northampton, of whose retinue he was a member. During the civil wars he was successively captain and major of infantry, and afterwards he busied himself in the instructing of private pupils and the writing of plays. His poverty was somewhat relieved by application first to Cromwell, and afterwards to Charles II. Twelve plays, nine in manuscript and three printed, are generally ascribed to him. There is no evidence that any was presented. One, The Just General (1652), described as a 'tragi-comedy,' is written throughout in a peculiar rhythmical blank verse, scarcely different from prose. Consult: Lamb, Specimens of the English Dramatic Poets (London, 1808; and subsequent editions); Fleay, A Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama, 1559-1642 (London, 1891).

MANUCODE (Malay Manukdevata, bird of the gods). The name originally given to the

king bird-of-paradise, but now applied to certain Papuan birds probably not relatives of the Paradiseidæ at all. They have glossy, steel-blue plumage, and are remarkable for their vocal powers. Lesson, Forbes, and other ornithologists assert that they are able to pass through every note of the gamut. Eight or ten species are known, of which Manucodia viridis is common throughout the entire Papuan region. It is described by Wallace as being powerful and active, clinging to the smaller branches of the trees on which it finds the fruit that constitutes its food.

MANUEL I., COMNEʼNUS (1120-80). Byzantine Emperor from 1143 to 1180. He was the youngest son of the Emperor CaloJohannes, whom he succeeded upon the throne. He became at once involved in an uninterrupted series of wars in Asia and Europe. In 1144 Raymond, Prince of Antioch, who had thrown off the Byzantine yoke, was compelled to submit again to vassalage. In 1147 the Crusaders, under Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Germany, marched through Manuel's dominions without serious hindrance on his part, as he was at this time entangled in a war with Roger, King of Sicily. This conflict proved a long and arduous one. For a time the Byzantine arms were victorious, but the fortune of war changed and no substantial gain resulted. Manuel was engaged in protracted wars with the Seljuks, who in 1176 defeated his forces in a great battle at Myriocephalon. He sought to drive Frederick Barbarossa out of Italy, but failed. He also waged war with the Hungarians and with the Venetians, being unsuccessful against the latter. He died September 24, 1180. The reign of Manuel was one of great splendor, but the expenses of the numerous wars and his policy of allowing the Italians to monopolize the trade sapped the strength of the Empire. Consult: Tafel, Komnenen und Normannen (2d ed., Stuttgart, 1870); Kap-Herr, Abendländische Politik Kaiser Manuels (Strassburg, 1881); Finlay, History of Greece, vol. fii. (London, 1877).

MANUEL II., PA'LÆOL'OGUS (13481425). Byzantine Emperor from 1391 to 1425. He succeeded his father, John V., as sole ruler after he had been an associate in the Empire since 1373. Fearing that Constantinople would fall into the hands of the Turks, Manuel applied for aid to the Western princes, whose army was defeated with great slaughter by Bajazet (q.v.) Manuel with the aid of Bajazet rose in rebellion, at Nicopolis, in 1396. In 1398 a nephew of and the Emperor was compelled to make him coEmperor. He was known as John VII. Manuel was in constant peril until Bajazet was defeated by Timur at Angora, in 1402, and taken prisoner. After the death of Bajazet in 1403 Manuel reigned in peace for eighteen years, for the young Sultan Mohammed I. was his intimate friend. But when in 1421 Mohammed died and Amurath II. came to the throne, the old contest was renewed. In 1422 Constantinople was besieged, and although the siege failed, Manuel had to sign a humiliating treaty. He retired to a monastery in 1423, after a severe illness, his son John VIII. becoming practically the sole ruler. Manuel died in 1425. Consult Xivrey, "Sur la vie et les ouvrages de l'empereur Manuel Paléologue," in Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions, vol. xix. (Paris, 1853).

MANUEL I., THE GREAT (1469-1521). A King of Portugal, in whose reign that country attained the highest pitch of power and splendor. He succeeded John II. in 1495, ruled throughout with the help of the Cortes, and did much for art and letters by his generous patronage. The only blot on his domestic administration was his persecution of the Jews. But the same militant Christianity led him to attempt conquests in Africa, in which he was unsuccessful, to enter into diplomatic relations with many far-off lands, and to fit out great expeditions of exploration and conquest. It was Manuel who sent Vasco da Gama around the Cape, Cabral upon the voyage which resulted in the accidental discovery of South America, Cortereal to North America, and Almeida and Albuquerque to the East Indies, where a wide field was opened for Portuguese

commerce.

MANUEL, må'nu'èl', EUGÈNE (1823-1901). A French poet and prose writer, born in Paris of Jewish parents. From 1849 to 1871 he taught rhetoric in different Parisian lyceums. He was appointed chief of cabinet to the Minister of Public Instruction in 1871, a year later was made inspector of the Academy of Paris, and in 1878 inspector-general. With his brother-inlaw, E. Lévi-Alvarès, he published four volumes of lectures for the use of students, entitled La France (1854-55; 6th ed. 1868). Several of his verse collections were crowned by the Academy. They include: Pages intimes (3d ed., 1869); Poèmes populaires (1871); Pendant la guerre (1871); Un voyage (5th ed. 1890); Poésies du foyer et de l'école (16th ed. 1892). His play Les ouvriers (1870) also received academic honors, and Mme. Sarah Bernhardt made her first appearance at the Comédie Française in his drama L'absent (1873). Manuel edited the Euvres lyriques de Jean Baptiste Rousseau (1852) and Chénier's Poésies (1884).

MANUEL, mä'ny'âl', Don JUAN (1282-1349). A Spanish prince and author, born at Escalona. He was the nephew of Alfonso X., called "the Wise.' His father died in his youth, and he was brought up by his cousin, Sancho IV., who was succeeded by Ferdinand IV. Upon his death, Don Manuel was co-regent for the young heir Alfonso XI. (1320). When the King reached his majority he refused to marry Constance, the daughter of Don Manuel, or in other ways recognize his authority. From 1327 to 1335 there was active war between them, ending in the King's victory. He afterwards received Don Manuel into favor, and made him general-in-chief of the army against the Moors. Don Manuel is better remembered now as author than as soldier. His prose is clear, vigorous, and interesting. Several of his works may be found in Rivadeneyra's Biblioteca de autores españoles, vol. xi. (Madrid, 1884). The most important of them is the Conde Lucanor (1575), with a commentary by Gonzalo Argote de Molina. This consists of forty-nine stories, told somewhat in the Oriental manner, with a little moral in verse at the end of each tale. More modern editions of El Conde Lucanor are those of Stuttgart (1839), Barcelona (1853), and Madrid (1860). There is an English translation by James York (Lon

don, 1868 and 1888).

MANUEL, må'nu'el', NIKOLAUS (1484-1530). A Swiss painter, poet, and magistrate, born at

Bern. His early profession was probably that of painter and engraver, and in his youth he traveled a good deal, and was a pupil of Titian at Venice. Upon his return to Bern he became a member of the Great Senate (1512), and afterwards served in the French Army. He was a pronounced supporter of the Swiss reformation. His writings include the satirical comedies: Vom Papst und seiner Priesterschaft, Der Ablasskrämer, Barbeli, and Elsli Tragdenknaben, reedited by Tittmann in 1868 and Bachtold in 1878. His works as an artist are very interesting; they consist of a few oil and water-color paintings, and a number of drawings, best studied in the Basel Museum. His frescoes, "The Dance of the Dead," painted on the walls of the Dominican convent (1515-21) at Bern, were destroyed, but have been well copied in the twenty-four lithographs, Niklaus Manuels Totentanz (Bern, 1829-31).

MANUFACTURED ARTICLE. A thing which has been created by the application of labor to crude materials, whereby they are transformed into a new and different quality, shape, or form, having a distinctive name, character, or use, and capable of being used without alteration. The term is sometimes confused with manufactured 'products,' such as 'pig iron' or 'pig lead,' which are merely iron and lead reduced from the native ores and freed from impurities, and which are, in law, considered as 'raw' or crude materials, ready to be manufactured into articles. The word article, therefore, in its technical legal sense means a thing adapted for use. The distinction between manufactured articles and crude or raw materials is of great importance under tariff and revenue acts where the former are assessed with a higher rate of duty than the latter. The distinction above mentioned has been adopted by the United States courts in the interpretation of our tariff laws. For example, india-rubber, which is a product obtained by reducing the juice or sap of certain tropical trees and plants to a solid form by dipping convenient molds into it, and drying it over a fire made from a peculiar kind of nut, was held not to be a manufactured article under a tariff act taxscribed it as a "raw material in a more portable, The court deing articles made of rubber.

useful, and convenient form for other manufactures here." The court, however, held that rubber shoes, made by the same process, except that the mold was in the form of the human foot, were manufactured articles, as they were adapted for immediate use. Consult: Carr, Judicial Interpretation of Tariff Acts (1894); Elmes, Law of the Customs; also the authorities referred to under SALES.

The

MANUFACTURERS, NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF. An association of American manufacturers organized in Cincinnati in 1895 for the purposes of increasing their export trade, influencing legislation affecting their interests, and of coping with the demands of labor organizations. association maintains a central office in New York which supplies members with information about foreign markets, prices, credit reports, and undertakes through its international freight bureau the shipment and delivery of foreign consignments. Its most conspicuous function is the energetic campaign which it wages against radical legislation and trade unionism. The public measures with which the association has been

most prominently connected are the reform of the patent law and of the consular and postal services. The association has placed itself on record as not being opposed to labor organizations as such, but maintains that employers must be free to employ their working people without interference on the part of individual organizations and that they must be unmolested in the management of their business and in the use of any methods or systems of pay which are equitable. The association provided for the organization of separate defense associations in the different lines of industry it repregents. Provision was further made for the federation of these affiliated protected associations into a "permanent central organization that will create a clearing-house for ideas and provide means for coöperation on matters of common interest." The association has evidently entered upon a programme of positive opposition to trade unionism. The association had, in 1903, more than 1900 members, and claimed that, measured by capital invested, workmen employed, or products manufactured, it constitutes the largest trade body in the world. The association publishes the American Trade Index and the Confidential Bulletin of Inquiries from Foreign Buyers; its organ is American Industries, published semi-monthly at New York.

MANUFACTURES (ML. manufactura, from Lat. manufactus, manu factus, made by hand, from manu, abl. sg. of manus, hand, and factus, p.p. of facere, to make). In a broad sense of the term, manufactures are such forms of industry as elaborate for economic use materials which are themselves the product of industry. Manufactures are thus distinguished from extractive industry, which procures wealth from nature in its primary forms. In practice it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between these two types of industry, since many commodities which are commonly classed as raw materials have been subject to one or more elaborative processes, as, for example, raw cotton, raw sugar, pig iron. The practice of American statisticians is to class with extractive industry processes which are directly connected with the exploitation of natural products. Butter and cheese which are made on the farm are treated as agricultural products; when produced in factories distinct from the farm they are classed with manufactures. A product in its earliest merchantable form may then be classed with raw materials; when subjected to further processes of elaboration it becomes a manufactured commodity. For the technical legal distinction in this matter, see MANUFACTURED ARTICLE.

Again, many commodities undergo minor changes incidental to consumption. The preparation of food may be cited as a case in point. Such processes are not usually placed under manufactures. If the preparation of food is carried on in separate establishments with a view to supplying a market, it will fall under the head of manufactures. This distinction is obviously difficult to make in practice. The twelfth census of the United States excludes from manufactures proper most forms of order production, confining the term to production of standard commodities for a general market. From a theoretical point of view, however, it is better to include under manufactures all proc

esses of elaboration of merchantable materials into commodities primarily designed for sale. In this sense of the term manufactures presuppose a considerably developed economic life. They did not exist when each household produced exclusively for its own consumption. In Western Europe they were first carried on under the guilds (q.v.), forming, however, but an insignificant part of the economic life. With the rise of capital in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, manufactures were carried on more extensively under the domestic system. The capitalist-merchant put out materials to be worked up at home by workmen whose chief occupation was usually agriculture. This form of manufacture still exists in America and England; it is widely practiced in France, Germany, and Russia; and in some European districts, notably in Norway, it is the prevalent form.

In the more advanced nations domestic manufacture has been largely supplanted by the factory system (q.v.). The extension of the market in early modern times, requiring a vastly increased production of goods of standard kinds, led first to excessive division of labor and later to the invention of machinery. The first industries to respond to these influences were the textile and the iron industries as discussed in detail under the heads of TEXTILE MANUFACTURING and IRON AND STEEL, METALLURGY OF.

At

MANUFACTURES IN THE UNITED STATES. the end of the colonial period manufacturing industry in America was of slight importance. The principal salable articles were raw materials, such as the products of the forests. Each household provided itself with the chief commodities for consumption. In New England, however, the manufacture of rum was extensive, and the production of hats, coarse cloth, and nails was carried on under the domestic system of industry. The total value of the manufactures of America at the time of the adoption of the Constitution has been estimated at $20,000,000; but this includes much domestic production for home consumption.

Machine production scarcely existed before 1790. In that year a British mechanic, Slater, set up spinning machinery in Rhode Island. In 1794 Whitney invented the cotton gin, thus assuring a supply of raw materials for the new By 1810 machinery had cotton manufacture. been generally introduced in textile manufacture, although large quantities of goods were still produced under the older system. The value of textiles produced in that year was estimated at about $40,000,000.

The iron manufacture developed more slowly. Machinery of improved types was introduced in the first and second decades of the nineteenth century, but the greater part of the production and manufacture was carried on in a primitive fashion, until the fifth decade of the century, when anthracite began to be substituted for charcoal in smelting. From that time increase was rapid, as will be seen in the statistics given under IRON AND STEEL, METALLURGY OF.

The

The value of the manufactures of the United States for the year 1810 was estimated by Tench Coxe to be $198,613,471. In 1820 the value of manufactures had risen to $268,000,000. following table, taken from the Twelfth Census, Manufactures, part i., gives the essential facts as to the development of manufactures from 1850: