in different men; fince they cannot doubt but different men may have difcovered fèveral qualities in fubftances of the fame denomination, which others know nothing of § 49. Therefore to fix their Species, a real Effence is fuppofed...

To avoid this, therefore, they have fuppofed a real effence belonging to every fpecies, from which thefe properties all flow, and would have their name of the fpecies ftand for that. But they not having any idea of that real effence in fubftances, and their words fignifying nothing but the ideas they have, that which is done by this attempt, is only to put the name or found in the place and ftead of the thing having that real effence, without knowing what the real effence is; and this is that which men do, when they freak of fpecies of things, as fuppofing them made by nature, and diftinguifhed by real effences.

$50. Which Suppofition is of no use.

FOR let us confider, when we affirm, that all gold is fixed, either it means that fixedness is a part of the definition, part of the nominal effence the word gold stands for; and fo this affirmation, all gold is fixed, contains nothing but the fignification of the term geld; or elfe it means, that fixednefs not being a part of the definition of the word gold, is a property of that fubftance itself; in which cafe, it is plain, that the word gold ftands in the place of a fubftance, having the real effence of a fpecies of things made by nature. In which way of fubftitution it has fo confufed and uncertain a fignification, that though this propofition, gold is fixed, be in that fenfe an affirmation of fomething real, yet it is a truth will always fail us in its particular application, and fo is of no real ufe nor certainty; for let it be never fo true, that all gold, i. e. all that has the real effence of gold, is fixed, what ferves this for, whilft we know not in this fenfe what is or is not gold? For if we know not the real effence of gold, it is impoflible we should know what parcel of matter has that effence, and fo whether it be true gold or no.

$51. Conclufion.

To conclude; what liberty Adams had at first to make

any complex ideas of mixed modes, by no other pittera but by his own thoughts, the fame have all men ever fince hat. And the fame neceffity of conforming his ideas of fubftances to things without him, as to archetypes made by nature, that Adam was under, if he would not wilfully impofe upon himself, the fame are all men ever fince under too. The fame liberty also that Adam had of affixing any new name to any idea, the fame has any one itill (especially the beginners of languages, if we can imagine any fuch), but only with this difference, that in places where men in fociety have already eltablished a language amongit them, the fignification of words are very warity and fparingly to be altered; becaufe men being furnished aiready with names for their ideas, and common ufe having appropriated knowa names to certain ideas, an affected mifapplication of them cannot but be very ridiculous. He that hath new notions, will, perhaps, venture fometimes on the coining new terms to express them; but men think it a boldness, and it is uncertain whether common ufe will ever make them pafs for current. But in communication with others, it is neceffary that we conform the ideas we make the vulgar words of any language ftand for, to their known proper fignifications (which I have explained at large already), or elfe to make known that new fignification we apply them to.

B

$1. Particles connect Parts, or whole Sentences together. ESIDES words, which are names of ideas in the mmd, there are a great many others that are made ufe of, to fignify the connection that the mind gives to idens, or propofitions, one with another. The mind, in communicating its thought to others, does not only need figns of the ideas it has then before it, but others alfo, to thow or intimate fome particular action of its own, at that time, relating to thofe ideas. This it does feveral ways; as is, and is not, are the general marks of the

mind, affirming or denying.. But befides affirmation or negation, without which there is in words no truth or fallehood, the mind does, in declaring its fentiments to others, connect not only the parts of propofitions, but whole fentences one to another, with their feveral relations and dependencies, to make a coherent difcourse,

§ 2. In them confifts the Art of well speaking. THE words, whereby it fignifies what connection it. gives to the feveral affirmations and negations, that it unites in one continued reasoning or narration, are ge nerally called particles; and it is in the right use of these, that more particularly confifts the clearness and beauty, of a good ftyle. To think well, it is not enough that a man has ideas clear and diftinct in his thoughts, nor that he obferves the agreement or difagreement of fome of them; but he muft think in train, and obferve the dependence of his thoughts and reafonings one upon another; and to express well fuch methodical and rational thoughts, he must have words to show what connections reftriction, diftinction, oppofition, emphasis, &c. he gives to each refpective part of bis difcourfe. To mistake in any of thefe, is to puzzle, instead of informing his hearer; and therefore it is that those words, which are not truly by themselves the names of any ideas, are of such conftant and indifpenfible use in language, and do much contribute to mens well expreffing themselves.. §3. They show what Relation the Mind gives to its own Thoughts.

་་་

THIS part of gramnrar has been perhaps as much ne glected, as fome others over diligently cultivated. It is eafy for men to write one after another, of cafes and genders, moods and tenfes, gerunds and fupines. In these, and the like, there has been great diligence used; and particles themselves, in fome languages, have been, with great show of exactnefs, ranked into their feveral orders. But though prepofitions and conjunctions, &c. are names well known in grammar, and the particles contained under them carefully ranked into their diftin& fubdivifions; yet he who would fhow the right ufe of particles, and what fignificancy and force they have,

must take a little more pains, enter into his own thoughts, and obferve nicely the feveral poftures of his mind in difcourfing.

$ 4. They show what Relation the Mind gives to its orun thoughts..

NEITHER is it enough, for the explaining of these words, to render them, as it is ufually in dictionaries, by words of another tongue which come nearest to their fignifica tion; for what is meant by them, is commonly as hard. to be understood in one, as another language. They are all marks of fome action, or intimation of the mind; and therefore to understand them rightly, the feveral views, poftures, stands, turns, limitations and exceptions, and feveral other thoughts of the mind, for which we have either none, or very deficient names, are diligently to be ftudied. Of these there are a great variety, much exceeding the number of particles, that most languages have to express them by; and therefore it is not to be wondered that most of these particles have divers, and fometimes almoft oppofite fignifications. In the Hebrew tongue there is a particle confifting but of one fingle letter, of which there are reckoned up, as I remember, feventy, I am fure above fifty feveral fignifications.

$5. Inftance in But.

BUT is a particle, none more familiar in our language; and he that fays it is a difcretive conjunction, and that it anfwers fed in Latin, or mais in French, thinks he has fufficiently explained it; but it feems to me to intimate feveral relations the mind gives to the feveral propofitions or parts of them, which it joins by this monofyllable.

First, BUT to say no more; here it intimates a stop of the mind in the courfe it was going, before it came to

the end of it.

Secondly, I faw BUT tavo plants; here it fhows, that the mind limits the fenfe to what is expreffed, with a negation of all other..

Thirdly, You pray; BUT it is not that GOD would bring you to the true religion.

Fourthly, BUT that he would confirm you in your own.

The firft of thefe BUTS intimates a fuppofition in the mind of fomething otherwife than it should be; the lat-) ter fhows, that the mind makes a direct oppofition be-tween that, and what goes before it.

Fifthly, All animals have fenfe; BUT a dog is an ani mat; here is fignifies little more, but that the latter pró-, pofition is joined to the former, as the minor of a fylla.... { gifm.

§ 6.

To thefe, I doubt not, might be added a great, many. other fignifications of this particle, if it were my buffnefs to examine it in its full latitude, and confider it in. all the places it is to be found, which if one thould do, I doubt, whether in all thofe manners it is made ufe of, it would deferve the title of difcretive, which grammarians give to it. But I intend not here a full explication of this fort of figns. The inftances I have given in this one, may give occafion to reflect upon their ufe and force in language, and lead us into the contemplation of feveral actions of our minds in difcourfing, which it has found a way to intimate to others by thefe particles; fome whereof constantly, and others in certain constructions, have the fenfe of a whole fentence contained in them.

CHAP. VIII.

OF ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE TERMS.

§ 1. Abstract Terms not predicable one of another, and

why.

HE ordinary words of language, and our common

THE

nature of our ideas, if they had been but confidered with attention. The mind, as has been ihown, has a power to abstract its ideas, and fo they became effences, general effences, whereby the forts of things are diftinguished. Now each abstract idea being diftinct, fo that of any two the one can never be the other, the mind will, by its intuitive knowledge, perceive their difference; and therere in propofitions, no two whole ideas can ever be af