In front the soft palate becomes continuous with | the tongue and pharynx or back part of the mouth through two mucous and muscular folds on either side known as the anterior and posterior pillars of the fauces. The anterior arch of each side exists as a curve from the uvula to the side of the tongue. The posterior arch begins at the uvula, follows the free edge of the soft palate, and ends at the side of the pharynx. The pillars of each side separate or diverge in a triangular manner from their point of origin, and within the triangle of each side a tonsil is contained.

The use

The muscles of the soft palate number five pairs. These are the leratores palati, which raise the soft palate and bring it to the horizontal position in swallowing. The tensores palati draw the soft palate downwards and tighten it, and their action also includes the keeping patent and open of the Eustachian tubes. The palato-glossi and palato-pharyngei muscles form the bulk of the arches of the soft palate; and the azygos uvula muscle constitutes the last structure of this description included in the soft palate. The tonsils or amygdala (almond-like') are placed between the palatine arches. They afford a mucous secretion, of use in lubricating the passages. The substance of each tonsil contains numerous follicles, which open externally by twelve or fifteen openings. These follicles secrete the mucus. The tonsils are liable to inflammatory affections, and are excised for disease without leaving any bad effects. Both the hard and soft palate are supplied with blood by the descending palatine branch of the internal maxillary artery; and with nerves by the palatine branches of the superior maxillary nerve. of the soft palate is chiefly to close the posterior nares or nostrils, and so to prevent the escape of the food by the nose in swallowing; during which process the palate is elevated by the levator muscles from its usually dependent position to the horizontal position. In the latter position it lies upon the back of the pharynx, and so closes the nares. The arches of the palate assist in swallowing. The anterior arches during deglutition contract, so as to prevent the food from returning into the mouth; whilst the posterior arches contract at the sides, and so preclude the escape of food into the nose. The whole process of swallowing is performed firstly by the mass of food being brought to the back of the tongue. The lower jaw being next closed to afford a fixed point for the action of the muscles which raise the larynx, the food is sent into the elevated pharynx by the pressure of the tongue on the palate. The posterior palatine arches and soft palate prevent the escape of the food into the nose at this stage; the anterior palatine arches and tongue prevent it returning to the mouth; the epiglottis is shut over the upper opening of the larynx so as to prevent the food entering the windpipe; and by the action of the constrictor muscles of the pharynx the food is finally shot into the esophagus or gullet, along which tube it is propelled to the stomach by the peristaltic or vermicular contraction of its muscular walls.

PALATINATE, formerly the name of two states of the German Empire, which, until 1620, were united. The name Palatinate (German, Pfalz) was originally given to the imperial castles dispersed over the German Empire, in which the emperors resided alternately, with a view to maintain order by their presence, and to administer justice impartially in all the provinces of the empire. The palatine or count palatine was the highest civil and judicial officer in these castles. Finally, the title was retained by only two of the territorial magnates of the empire, whose states were distinguished as the Upper and Lower Palatinate, or as the Palatinates of Bavaria and the VOL. V.

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Rhine. The Upper Palatinate was included in the circle of Bavaria, and was bounded north by the county of Baireuth, east by Bohemia, south by the county of Neuburg, west by Bavaria and the territory of Nürnberg. Its capital was Amberg. The Lower Palatinate (Palatinate of the Rhine) was contained in the electoral circle of the Rhine, and was situated on both sides of the river. It was bounded by the territories of Mainz, Katzenellenbogen, Würtemberg, Baden, Alsace, Lorraine, and Trèves. It was composed of the Palatinate proper or Electoral Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine, one of the most fertile countries in Europe, and of the Principality of Simmern, the Duchy of Deux-Ponts (Zweibrücken), the half of the county of Sponheim, and the Principalities of Veldenz and Lautern.

The counts-palatine of the Rhine, whose original seat was Aix-la-Chapelle, were already in the eleventh century in possession of the dignity of their office, and of the lands pertaining to it, and were among the most powerful princes of the German Empire. In 1156, the Count-palatine Hermann III. having died without issue, the Emperor Frederick I. (Barbarossa) gave the Palatinate to his own half-brother Conrad of Suabia. On the death of the latter his son-in-law, Henry of Brunswick, eldest son of Henry the Lion, inherited the Palatinate. Having taken part with his brother-in-law Otto IV. against Frederick II. he was put under the ban of the empire by Frederick, who in 1215 adjudged the Palatinate to Louis, duke of Bavaria, who, however, never obtained full possession of the state. His son, Otto II., married Agnes, the daughter and heiress of Henry (1227), and thus the entire Palatinate fell into the possession of the house of Bavaria. On the death of Otto in 1253 his sons Ludwig II. and Henry reigned, at first jointly. In 1256 they made a partition, and the Palatinate of the Rhine and Upper Bavaria fell to Ludwig, and Lower Bavaria to Henry. In 1294 Louis died, leaving two sons, Rudolph (Ï.) and Ludwig. The former obtained the electorate, and the latter Upper Bavaria. Louis subsequently became emperor, and also acquired Lower Bavaria. He deprived his brother Rudolph, who had taken part with his rival, Frederick the Fair of Austria, of the Palatinate; but he restored it to his son Adolphus, together with that part of Bavaria afterwards called the Upper Palatinate. Rudolph's three sons (Adolphus, died 1327; Rudolph II., died 1353; and Ruprecht I., died 1393) followed each other in the sovereignty of the state. Rudolph II. acquired the counties of Neubach and Sulzbach. He concluded with the Emperor Louis in 1329 the Convention of Pavia, by which the electorate was to be exercised alternately by Bavaria and the Palatinate. Ruprecht exchanged with the Emperor Charles IV. a portion of the Upper Palatinate for the entire cession of the electoral dignity. Bavaria was accordingly excluded from the electorate. Ruprecht II., son of Adolphus, died in 1398. His son, Ruprecht III., became emperor in 1400, and died in 1410. His four sons divided his possessions among them. Louis (III.) received the Electorate and the Palatinate of the Rhine, John the Upper Palatinate, Stephen Zweibrücken and Simmern, and Otto Mosbach. second and fourth lines soon became extinct. The first line also became extinct in 1559, with Otto Henry the Magnanimous. Frederick III. of the line of Simmern succeeded. Like Otto he embraced the Reformation; but he adhered not to the Lutheran, but to the Calvinistic party. Louis VI. succeeded in 1576, Frederick IV. in 1583, and Frederick V. in 1610. This was the unfortunate elector who was put to the ban of the empire (1619) for aspiring to the crown of Bohemia. (See GERMANY and THIRTY 268

The

smaller chamber within itself, in which there is a large tablet of stone sculptured with hieroglyphics and with a group of human figures apparently engaged in a solemn sacrifice. Some of the figure groups in stucco-work belonging to this edifice, according to Mr. Stephens, 'in justness of proportion and symmetry must have approached the Greek models.' There are also a number of monolithic statues among the remains. These ruins were discovered by the Spaniards in 1750, and were explored by order of the government in 1784 and 1787 by Bernasconi and Del Rio, who published an account of them in 1822; by Du Paix (1807), whose account was published in 1834-35; and by Stephens and Catherwood in 1840. See Stephens's Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan; and Catherwood's Views of the Ancient Monuments of Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan.

PALERMO, a province in the north of Sicily, bounded on the north by the Tyrrhenean Sea, east by the provinces of Messina and Catania, south by Caltanisetta and Girgenti, and west by Trapani; greatest length, north-west to south-east, 66 miles; breadth, 48 miles; area, 1963 square miles. Its coast consists of a series of extensive bays and bold promontories. Its interior towards the south is traversed, east to west, by a branch of the Neptunian Mountains. The streams are numerous, but small. It is divided into four districts-Palermo, the capital; Cefalù, Corleone, and Termini Imerese. Pop. 617,678. PALERMO (ancient Panormus), a seaport town, the capital of Sicily, beautifully situated on the northern shore of the island on a wide bay partly inclosed by lofty hills. Its numerous spires, domes, and towers give it a very imposing appearance when approached from the sea. It is of a rectangular shape, surrounded by walls flanked with bastions, defended by several batteries, and entered by twelve gates. It is built with considerable regularity, and is intersected at right angles by two principal streets. At the point of intersection is a large octagon called the Quattro Cantoneri (with a beautiful fountain in its centre), lined with elegant buildings in the different styles of Grecian architecture, and adorned with numerous statues. The two principal streets are opened into by a great number of others, which are both narrower and of an inferior description; but all the streets, principal and inferior, are remarkably well paved with blocks of lava, though the benefit is often lost from the filthy state in which many of them are allowed to remain. Numerous obstructions also, in the form of booths, workshops, and other projections, block up several of the thoroughfares, and make the threading of them a task both of difficulty and danger. There are not many squares in addition to the one already mentioned, but admirable places of resort are provided by the Marina and the Flora-the former a superb terrace about 80 yards wide, stretching about a mile along the bay; the latter, commencing in the east where the terrace terminates, is a magnificent public garden regularly and beautifully laid out, and adorned with statues, fountains, and rustic temples. The public edifices are numerous, but do not in general display much taste. The most important are the cathedral, the church of San Giuseppe, numerous other churches and convents; the royal palace, finely situated, and surrounded by beautiful gardens, but consisting of a large and irregular pile of buildings, among which the only great attractions are the chapel of King Roger, rich in mosaics, the picture-gallery, the armoury, and the observatory, from which Piazzi discovered the planet Ceres; the archiepiscopal palace, the mint, custom-house, public library (apparently both well arranged and much frequented); the uni

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versity, in a very declining state; the barracks, arsenal, courts of justice, monte-di-pietà, three theatres, four hospitals, and several literary and charitable endowments. The manufactures consist chiefly of silks, cottons, oil-cloth, leather, glass, and gloves made from the byssus or beard of a species of mussel. The trade has the advantage of an excellent roadstead and harbour, and though much more limited than it ought to be considering the great natural resources of the island, is by no means unimportant, and has in recent times greatly increased. The principal articles of export are shumac, wine and spirits, fruit, sulphur, skins, oil, essences, linseed, cream of tartar, liquorice, and manna; of import-colonial produce, woollen, cotton, linen, and silk tissues, hardware, earthenware, &c. The fisheries on the coast are very productive, and give employment to numerous hands.

Palermo is the see of an archbishop, and the seat of a supreme court with jurisdiction over the whole island; of a criminal court for the province, of a commercial and several other inferior courts, and of several important public offices. Its foundation is attributed to the Phoenicians. From them it passed to the Carthaginians, who made it the capital of their Sicilian possessions and the centre of an extended commerce. The Romans obtained possession of it in B.C. 254, made it a free town, and conferred upon it many important privileges, in consequence of which it increased rapidly and became very prosperous. After the fall of the Roman Empire the Saracens became its masters, and kept possession of it till 1072, when it was taken by Roger the Norman, who founded the Kingdom of Sicily. Since then it has always continued to be the capital. It has repeatedly suffered from earthquakes. This and the other vicissitudes which it has undergone is probably the reason why so few remains of antiquity are to be found within it. Some, however, still exist in its environs, which, both on this account and their own intrinsic beauty, are in many respects more attractive than the town. During an insurrection which took place in January, 1848, the town was bombarded; and Garibaldi seized it in 1860. Pop. in 1872 (commune), 219,398; (town), 186.145.

PALES, one of the rural deities of Italy, the giver of good pasturage, and the protectress of the flocks from contagion and wild beasts. She was represented as a pastoral goddess with a staff and a crown on her head, and was worshipped sometimes under the trees, sometimes in temples. Her festival was celebrated on the same day as the anniversary of the founding of Rome (April 21). The offerings to her were milk and cakes. Some authors represent Pales as a male deity, the son of Jupiter.

PALESTINE, CANAAN, LAND OF ISRAEL, JUDEA, or HOLY LAND, a country forming part of Asiatic Turkey, on the south-west of Syria, forming part of the pashalic of Acre and Damascus, situated between lat. 31° 30' and 33° 30′ N.; lon. 34° 30′ to 36° E.; and bounded on the north by the mountains of Lebanon, east by the Arabian Desert, south by Arabia Petræa, and west by the Mediterranean; length, north to south, about 140 miles; breadth, about 80 miles; area, nearly 10,000 square miles.

Mountains.-The surface is generally mountainous, being traversed by branches from the chain of Lebanon, one of which stretches south in a direction nearly parallel to the coast of the Mediterranean, forming the water-shed between its basin and that of the Dead Sea; while another, turning more to the east, stretches along the left side of the valley of the Jordan. The mountains, composed generally of Jura limestone or oolite, but often capped or pierced by rocks of volcanic origin, attain their greatest height, of about 10,000 feet, in Mount Hermon, where they

YEARS' WAR.) His Electorate and estates were given | in 1623 to Maximilian, duke of Bavaria. Charles Louis, son of Frederick V., recovered the Lower Palatinate by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), and a new electorate, the eighth, was created for him, with the office of high-treasurer. The Upper Palatinate and the former rank of the elector-palatine in the electoral college remained with Bavaria. He joined the league against France in 1672, and the Palatinate was devastated by Turenne in 1674. He died in 1680, and the line became extinct with his son Charles in 1685, when Philipp Wilhelm, Pfalzgraf of Neuburg, succeeded to the electorate, and re-established Catholicism. In 1689 the Palatinate was again devastated by the French. The elector died in 1690, and was succeeded by his son Johann Wilhelm, whose estates were again ravaged by the French in 1693. He obtained peaceable possession of them by the Peace of Ryswick (1697). În 1705 he established toleration. In 1706, when the elector, Maximilian II. of Bavaria, was outlawed in connection with the war of the Spanish Succession, he recovered the Upper Palatinate, with the ancient electoral dignity, but was compelled to surrender them again at the Peace of 1714. He was vicar of the empire on the death of Joseph in 1711. He died in 1716, and was succeeded by his brother Karl Philipp, on whose death in 1742, without male issue, the electorate fell to the Sulzbach line, represented by Karl Theodor. On the death in 1777 of Maximilian III. he succeeded to the Electorate of Bavaria, a portion of the estates of which, however, fell to Austria. This was accompanied by the recovery of the old electoral office of the Palatinate, and the transference of the grandtreasurership to Brunswick. Towards the close of his reign the Palatinate was conquered by the French. He died without issue in 1799, and was succeeded by Maximilian Joseph, duke of Zweibrücken. At the Peace of Lunéville (1801) he was compelled to surrender the Palatinate. The possessions on the left bank of the Rhine were annexed to France, a considerable part of the remainder was given to the Grand-duke of Baden, and the rest was distributed among other princes. At the Peace of 1814 Germany recovered her possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, and the Palatinate was redistributed among Bavaria, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Prussia. The portion belonging to Baden is included in the circles of Mannheim, Heidelberg, and Mosbach; the Darmstadt portion constitutes the provinces of Starkenburg and Rheinhessen. Bavaria received the whole of the Upper Palatinate and the portion of the Lower Palatinate, forming the Bavarian circle of Rheinpfalz. The Prussian portion was added to the Prussian province of Rheinland.

PALATINE, COUNT. See PALATINATE and COUNTY PALATINE.

PALATINE HILL, PALATIUM. See ROME. PALEMBANG, a town of Sumatra, capital of the province of same name, on the Moesi, here called the Palembang, about 50 miles above its mouth. The town is spread out on both sides of the river and along some creeks, so that communication between the various parts must be maintained by boats. Many of the inhabitants likewise, chiefly Chinese, live constantly on the river. Palembang is the residence of the provincial authorities, and is very favourably placed for commerce, the river having a depth of 4 to 9 fathoms, and being affected by the tide. The population, consisting of natives, Arabians, Europeans, and Chinese, is estimated to amount to about 25,000.

PALENCIA, a town of Spain in Leon, capital of a province of same name, 117 miles north by west of Madrid. It is surrounded by a lofty wall on the

north-east and south, and washed by the Carrion on the west; is entered by seven gates, and consists generally of broad and well-paved streets and several promenades. The chief buildings are a light and elegant Gothic cathedral, five parish churches, several convents, an academy, a picture-gallery, Episcopal palace, court-house, and very large hospital. The staple manufactures are woollens. Palencia possesses considerable historical interest. The Cid resided here in a palace which he afterwards converted into the hospital of San Lazaro; and when the Black Prince attacked the city the women so distinguished themselves by their valour that Juan I. allowed them to perpetuate the memory of it by wearing a golden band on their head-dress. Pop. 13,126.-The province of Palencia is bounded by the provinces of San tander, Burgos, Valladolid and Leon; area, 3125 square miles. It is fertile, traversed by the Carrion and other streams, and contains copper mines and abundance of chalk, gypsum, and saltpetre. Great quantities of grain are produced. Woollens are extensively manufactured and exported to the rest of the kingdom. Pop. 184,668.

PALENQUE, a village in Mexico, in the depart ment of Chiapas, 60 miles north-east of Ciudad-Real Near it are extensive and magnificent ruins of what is supposed to have been a large city. These ruinare the most remarkable aboriginal remains that have yet been discovered in America. They cive a large area, and consist of vast pyramidal structur of cut stone, rising in terraces and surmounted b solid stone edifices of a peculiar architecture, or mented with figures cut in relief or formed of stuc and abundantly covered with hieroglyphics. M of the buildings crowning the pyramids are of story, though some are of two, and a square to of three at least. The principal building, whic known as the 'Palace,' is 228 feet long, 180 and 25 high, with a broad projecting cornice pyramid on which it stands being 310 feet 260 broad at the base, and 40 feet high. The faces the east, and has fourteen doorways on side and eleven at the ends. It is built of cut cemented with a mortar of lime and sand, a been originally faced with stucco and paint most of the stucco has fallen off. The piers the door-ways are ornamented with bass-r stucco, of spirited execution, and displaying knowledge of the anatomy and proportion human figure. There are four interior con which open a great number of chambers flo smooth solid cement. The principal court by 70. On each side are large slabs of stone are carved in bass-relief human figures ? high. The second court is as long, but From the north side of the third court r three stories high, which contains within distinct tower having a stair-way that e to say, against a solid stone ceiling. The and rooms sunk in the mass of the pyra have been found vases containing hu Another structure crowns a pyramid of high, on the slope, and so steep that i ascended with difficulty. This buìì. walls except on the north side, in whic ways. The front is richly ornament and the four piers between the door mented with well-executed female fi with hieroglyphics. Another rema consists of a raised terrace measurin slope, with a level summit 110 feet rises a pyramid 134 feet high on t with a building 50 feet long an building has three door-ways, apartments. The central and 1

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