games. Sensuality made him ingenious in gluttony and in the gratification of his natural propensities; extravagance made him covetous, and danger made him cruel. The most distinguished victims to his cruelty, besides Britannicus and Agrippina, were his instructors Burrhus and Seneca, the poet Lucan, and his wives, Octavia, whom he divorced on pretext of barrenness, and then banished to the island of Pandataria on a false accusation of adultery, where he soon after caused her to kill herself by opening her veins, and Poppea Sabina, for whose sake he had neglected and repudiated Octavia. My predecessors,' said he, 'did not know the rights of monarchy. People may hate me, if they only fear me.' During his reign, in 64 A.D., a great conflagration took place at Rome, which lasted nine days, and in which most beautiful monuments of art and of history were burned to the ground. Nero was commonly suspected of being the originator of this fire, with the view of having a real representation of the burning of Troy; and although this suspicion is regarded by modern scholars as almost incredible, it was so generally entertained at the time that Nero did his utmost to transfer the guilt of this action to the Christians, whom he caused to be cruelly persecuted for it throughout the empire. Both St. Paul and St. Peter are said to have been among the victims of these persecutions. As his passion for building was very strong, he caused that part of the city which was burned to be rebuilt in a manner more splendid and magnificent than before. The most remarkable of his buildings was the palace which he erected for himself in Rome, and which was known under the name of the Golden House. His extravagance in other things-clothes, hunting, furniture, &c. -was as boundless as his munificence to the people of Rome, whom he enriched by great largesses (largitiones, common in the republic only under certain circumstances), while the provinces were oppressed by the weight of taxes. Several conspiracies were formed against him in Rome, which ended in the destruction of the conspirators themselves. At last the revolt of Galba, his governor in Spain, whose cause the senate also espoused, succeeded. The tyrant anticipated the punishment which awaited him by committing suicide, A.D. 68.

NERVA, the successor of Domitian, and one of the most virtuous of the Roman emperors. He was born in Umbria in 32 A.D. In A.D. 71 he was consul along with Vespasian. He became emperor at an advanced age, after the assassination of Domitian, A.D. 96. He was a man of cultivated mind, with some poetical talent, but he was too weak for the dignity to which he was raised. He performed many beneficent acts, provided for the public tranquillity and the execution of justice, and relieved the poor; but he was unable to put down the violence and insubordination of the prætorian soldiers. Seeing his own defects as a ruler, he had the wisdom to adopt as his son and successor a man of totally opposite temper, M. Ulpius Trajanus, then commanding an army in Germany. He died A.D. 98.

NERVE, NERVOUS SYSTEM. By the nervous system of any animal form we mean to denote the apparatus through the agency of which the organism is brought into relation with the external world or medium in which it exists. In this way the being receives certain sensations, and in the higher animals is enabled to distinguish between these sensations, or primarily, to appreciate them; and as a second and as e sential a part of nervous action may be added the reaction upon the outer world of the animal in virtue of the sensations received or appreciated. The nervous system, in short, forms the medium through which every act or de tail of animal life is inaugur

ated and directed; and this duty involves the bringing of the organism firstly into relation with the external media, and secondly into relation with itself as affected by these media. The nervous function has accordingly been variously termed, as that of relation, correlation, innervation or irritability, all of which names have an obvious bearing upon the broad view of nervous action given above.

The essential, and at the same time the simplest, idea of any nervous system is involved in the necessary presence, firstly, of a nerve-centre or centres, which generate the nervous force or impulse; secondly, of conducting fibres or cords, the nerves; and thirdly, of an organ, part, or structure to which the impulse or impression may be conveyed. The third or latter condition, although generally present, and necessary, in sense, to render this primary idea of the nervous system clear, may yet in many cases and examples of nervous action be omitted from consideration. The nerve-centres of man and Vertebrata are disposed to form two chief sets, which are to be regarded as essentially distinct, but also as possessing certain relations to be hereafter noted. The brain and spinal marrow together constitute the first of these centres, and are collectively included under the name cerebrospinal system or axis. The second system is the sympathetic or ganglionic. From each of these systems nerve-cords are given off-the cerebral and spinal nerves from the former; and the so-called sympathetic fibres from the latter. The brain and spinal cord are contained within the continuous bony case and canal formed by the skull and spinal column; whilst the chief masses of the sympathetic system form an irregularly disposed chain, lying in front of the spine, and contained within the cavities of the thorax or chest and abdomen. Briefly stated, the general functions of the cerebro-spinal system are those concerned with volition and muscular movements, with the control of the senses, and in higher forms with the operations of the mind. The nerves of the sympathetic system in chief are distributed to the viscera, such as the heart, stomach, intestines, blood-vessels, &c.; and the operation of this system is in greater part of involuntary kind, and without the influence or command of the will.

The structure, general and microscopic, of the nervous system, reveals much that is characteristic, and

rous tissue two elements may be discerned by microscopic examination. These elements are nervous fibres, and nerve or ganglionic corpuscles. The nerve fibres may be studied in the ordinary nerves which take origin from the cerebro-spinal centres; with the exception of the olfactory nerves-or those ministering to the sense of smell-and the fibres of the sympathetic system, which exhibit a marked difference of structure from ordinary nerve fibres. The latter consist of delicate tubules, bounded by an outer or limiting membrane of structureless consistence and nature, each containing the essential nerve-substance. This substance is clear, somewhat oily in appearance, and exhibits no differentiation of parts. It is readily compressible, and escapes from the extremity of the tubule on pressure. After death, or in nerves which are not in a perfectly fresh state, or under the action and influence of chemical reagents, a process of coagulation takes place within the tubule; and this process produces in the central portion or axis of the tubule a thickening or thread-like structure known as the axis cylinder, whilst the cortical or outer portion of the tubule's contents becomes opaque and granular, and forms the so-called white substance of Schwann, or medullary sheath, as it has been also termed.

The various tubules which compose a single nervous trunk are bound and connected together by connective tissue, whilst the nerve-trunk itself is invested by a sheath of areolar tissue analogous to the sarcolemma of muscle, and known as the nerve-sheath or

A Nerve and its ramifications seen by the naked eye.

neurilemma. The different fibres of a nerve-trunk lie side by side within the sheath, and do not, save in a few instances, separate out, unite, or divide. The division into branches takes place at the peripheral or surface-terminations of the nerves, where they are distributed to organs or tissues; and the exact mode in which the nerve-fibres terminate, after they grow smaller and of finer proportions, has not as yet been definitely ascertained.

The nerve-fibres may exhibit a diameter so great as theth of an inch; but their average breadth may be stated to vary from both to the both of an inch. The largest fibres are those of the nervetrunks themselves; and they diminish in size in the neighbourhood of the nerve-centres-brain and spinal marrow and as they approach to the periphery of the body or to their ultimate terminations. The

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nerve-fibres of the brain and spinal marrow do not exhibit a limiting membrane; and in the gray matter of the brain and cord the fibres are of exceedingly small size, not exceeding the booth or 10th of an inch in diameter.

The chemical composition of nerve-substance and fibres shows that the axis-cylinders of the fibres are albuminous in nature. The white substance or medullary sheath consists chiefly of protagon, into the composition of which phosphorus enters. This protagon is not dissolved by ether, but is soluble in warm alcohol. When decomposed it gives compounds of fatty nature. The axis cylinder readily absorbs carmine, but is unaffected by chromic acid. The medullary sheath, on the contrary, does not imbibe carmine, but becomes opaque and of brownish hue when treated with chromic acid. This latter structure also becomes laminated, or exhibits a divided appearance into thin layers under the influence of the acid. The fibres of the olfactory and sympathetic nerves exhibit differences in structure from that just described as peculiar to the fibres of the cerebro-spinal system generally. The sympathetic fibres are thus of finer and more delicate nature than the ordinary fibres. They exhibit a darker colour, and are hence termed gray fibres. They probably also want the medullary sheath of the cerebro-spinal fibres; and the contents of the tubules appear to consist of a uniform matter, which most nearly corresponds to the axis-cylinder of the ordinary nerves. Large nuclei are also found in connection with these gray fibres. Certain nerves are found to present a combination of the characters of the ordinary and gray fibres; and in this view it may reasonably be doubted whether any grave or material difference exists between the functions or properties of the two kinds of nerve-fibres.

The subject of the origin of nerve-fibres from nervous centres will be noticed as the nature of these centres is discussed; but it may be appropriate at the present stage to note what is definitely known respecting the terminations of nerves in the periphery of the body-that is, in the parts and organs to which they are distributed. Thus nerves may terminate apparently in net-works or plexuses of delicate nature, as seen in the nerve-supply of muscles, mucous membranes, &c. Or the nerve-fibres may end in special structures, chief among which may be noted the Pacinian bodies, the touch-corpuscles of Wagner, and the end-bulbs of Krause. The former are principally found in the subcutaneous tissue of the fingers and toes, and average th of an inch in length. Each Pacinian body is composed of the expanded extremity of a nerve-fibre, surrounded by or enucleated amongst tissues. These bodies also occur on the mesentery and on the sympathetic plexuses of certain of the abdominal nerves. The touch-corpuscles are found in the cutis vera or true skin, in the papillæ or prominent sensitive projections of its surface. Each consists of a central nucleated structure, around which the terminal nerve-fibres are coiled. The end-bulbs are situated below the papillæ on such places as the lips, the conjunctiva of the eye. The nerve-fibre apparently terminates in the interior of the bulbs. In other cases nerve-filaments may be traced between the cells of the epidermis or outer skin, and may possibly terminate within these cells, although this latter idea has not been traced out to actual demonstration. In the eye, ear, &c., the ultimate nervefibres have been apparently traced to a termination in the cells of the structures they supply. The ends of nerves may be free, and unconnected structurally with the parts to which they are distributed, such modes of termination being found in muscular plex

uses.

And the so-called motor or motorial nerve or

end-plates (Rouget), exhibiting diameters varying from gaath to ath of an inch, constitute another mode of nerve-termination, seen in muscles, and consisting apparently of the dilated extremity of the nerve-fibre, imbedded in and inclosed by connective tissue.

The nerve-corpuscles or nerve-cells form important structures in the consideration of the relative parts of the nervous system. These corpuscles are related chiefly to the central or resicular portions of the system. The nerve-cells do not possess a wall, but may be inclosed with a nucleated sheath. Each consists of a granular protoplasmic mass, with a central particle or nucleus of clear consistence, whilst one or more smaller particles or nucleoli may be contained within the nucleus. The nerve-cells are dark in colour, and impart to certain portions of the nerve-centres (for example, the brain and spinal cord) the gray appearance therein observed. They vary in form, some being simple and of oval or rounded shape; others giving off branches or processes of various kinds, when they are termed polar, stellate, bipolar, or multipolar. The simple corpuscles are found chiefly in the sympathetic ganglia or centres. The multipolar or ganglion corpuscles are found in the spinal cord and elsewhere; and these poles or branches appear to be continued in some cases into nerve-fibres, or to join those of neighbouring corpuscles; or the processes may of themselves branch out and divide in a manner similar to the ordinary nerve-fibres.

The general functions of nerve fibres, the structure of which has just been described, may be briefly considered under two aspects. The fibres may thus convey impressions from the brain or nerve-centres to their peripheral extremities, or to the parts to which they are distributed. Or secondly, they may transmit sensations or impressions from the periphery, or from the parts they supply, to their centres. A double series of nerve-fibres, each set subserving one or other of the preceding functions, exists in the cerebro-spinal, as well as in the sympathetic nervous system. These series are therefore known as sensory, afferent, or centripetal nerves, when they transmit impressions from their peripheral extremities to the brain or centres; and as motor, efferent, or centrifugal nerves, when they carry impressions from the centres to their peripheral terminations.

Stimuli of various kinds applied to the nerves arouses the so-called excitability of the fibres, and through this property nerves convey impressions thus made upon them. But the nerves themselves do not appear capable of generating or evolving nervous force, and the nature of this force is as yet imperfectly understood. The sensory nerves may thus be acted upon or stimulated from without; whilst the motor nerves are similarly influenced from within by the will. But in both kinds of nerves the different stimuli produce the same effect of bringing the excitability into play- an effect differing not in kind but only in degree, and in the ulterior results of the stimulation.

The rate at which impressions are conveyed by nerves, or the rate of nervous force, has been calculated and measured with nicety by aid of delicate physiological appliances. Helmholtz says that in human motor nerves the impulse travels at the rate of 111 feet per second; but the rate appears to vary not only in different nerves, but in the same nerve under different conditions and at different times. In sensory nerves the rate is stated to average 140 feet per second.

Nerve fibres in any case- motor or sensory-can carry one kind of impulse only, corresponding to the kind of fibre. In certain nerves the impulses or impressions are of a limited or specialized kind, as in the

nerves of special sense-for example, sight, hearing, smell-whereby certain distinct sensations, of light, sound, or odours are produced. And such nerves, therefore, respond only to stimuli of the special kind above mentioned.

The fibres of sensory and motor nerves are indistinguishable in the nerve-trunks themselves. And it is at the origin of the trunks, and at their point of juncture or union with the nervous centres, that the different and distinct fibres of the motor or sensory nerves may be clearly perceived-as in the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal nerves, where they issue forth from the spinal cord.

The various nerve-centres of the body which originate, or at any rate direct and dispose the nerveforce, may be viewed as simple ganglia, or as collections of ganglia, or nervous masses. The brain itself falls under this latter division, and, like all other nerve-centres, is distinguished by its possessing nerve-corpuscles or vesicular nerve-substance.' The general functional relations existing between the nerve-centres and the nerves may be simply illustrated by the phenomena comprehended under the name of reflex action. When a peripheral nervefibre is irritated a sensory or centripetal impression is conveyed, as already explained, towards the nerve centre. Arriving at the centre the impression is converted into a motor or centrifugal one, and travels along the motor nerve-fibres, to excite, it may be, a muscle or other part to action. In the case of the muscle the impression would be named an excitomotor one; whilst if some gland or secreting structure were excited, the impression is termed excito-secretory. In either case the sensory nervous impression first received is reflected, as it were, to the other or motor nerve-fibre, and through this latter calls some part of the bodily mechanism into play. Nervous impressions may or may not be reflected to their original source; and where the brain acts as the nerve-centre, sensation is produced. And the general functional relation of the nervous system may be summarized by stating that its functions comprehend the reception and distribution of impressions; that these impressions originate either from influences acting on the periphery, or from the nerve-centres, brain, or mind; that these impressions respectively influence or stimulate the mind or nerve-centres, and the muscles or secreting structures; and lastly, that all nervous phenomena are exerted through, or accompanied by nervous action, and that this latter is, so far as physiology has yet been able to determine, of a uniform and similar kind.

The structure of the brain has already been no ticed in the article BRAIN, and the conformation and functions of the spinal cord will be noticed under that heading. The sympathetic system will be reviewed under the article on that subject; whilst details of the special senses will be found in the articles E, EAR, NOSE, LIGHT, &c.

The homology of the nervous system of Invertebrate forms with that of Vertebrata has formed subject-matter for much discussion. The Invertebrata possess no such specialization of the nervous centres as is seen in Vertebrates, in which the brain and spinal cord are enclosed within their bony case and canal, and thus shut off from the general cavity of the body. According to some authorities, the nervous ganglion or mass placed in Invertebrata above the mouth or oral extremity, is the representative, in itself, of the cerebro-spinal axis of Vertebrates. Whilst by others the sympathetic system of Vertebrates is viewed, as in the main, corresponding to the single nervous system of Invertebrate forms. The great and distinctive feature between the nervous system of Vertebrata and that of lower forms con

sists in the absence of a defined or chief nervous centre, through which consciousness may intervene to render the being intelligent, and aware of the nature of the acts it performs. Thus in Invertebrata generally, the actions performed are of a simple or reflex kind. The lower animal responds to impressions made on its sensorial nerves, and hence such impressions are termed sensori-motor; and are very different from the operations of the higher or Vertebrate being, in which consciousness largely enters into the phenomena of nervous action. The actions of the lower animal are purely adaptive, as regards the surrounding circumstances. The same surroundings, as in the case of the ant, wasp, or bee, produce the same effects, marvellous enough in their way, but purely of sensori or excito-motor kind, and destitute of the 'intelligence' of the higher Vertebrate.

NERVOUS DISEASES are such as consist in disturbed affections of sense and motion, unattended by any chronic or acute inflammation or hemorrhage, or by any disturbance of the circulation. Nervous diseases may be divided into nervous pains, called neuralgias; spasms are involuntary contractions in organs which have muscular fibres, or which are merely susceptible of contraction; convulsions are involuntary and irregular contractions, alternating with relaxations, in one, or several, or all of the muscles, simultaneously or successively; tetanus is a permanent contraction of a certain class of muscles, ordinarily followed by death; contraction is a retraction of the flexor muscles of one member, or of two parallel members; paralysis is the diminution or loss of the sensibility of an organ of sense, or the contractility of an organ of motion. The pains, spasms, paralysis, take different names according to the parts affected. The affections of the mind, known under the names of mental alienation, insanity, idiocy, &c., arise also from disturbances in the action of the nervous system. It has been asserted that nervous diseases are rendered more common by the progress of civilization; and, in fact, the nerves become more irritable, and therefore more liable to be diseased with the progress of intelligence. But the refinements of the moderns in their food and drinks, the use of fermented liquors, wine, coffee and tea, are the most frequent causes of nervous maladies. The early and excessive use of these liquids provokes the nerves, and diseases the stomach, and gives rise to cerebral fevers in children, to the vapours or hysterics (see HYSTERIA) in women, to hypochondria (see HYPOCHONDRIASIS), apoplexy, and paralysis in men. It is not always easy to distinguish the symptoms of nervous disease from those of inflammation; but, as the treatment in the two cases must be entirely different, it is of the greatest importance to use every caution in this respect. Particular medicines, which were considered as specific remedies in nervous diseases, were formerly in use; but experience has proved that warm bathing, soothing drinks, vegetable diet, exercise, recreation, sometimes bleeding, at others rubefacients, opium in a few cases when the pain is great, and quinine, are the best remedies. The treatment of nervous diseases, however, has often embarrassed the practitioner, as they may resist the most skilful and sagacious applications. See the articles NERVE, INSANITY, &c.

NERVURES, the horny ribs which support the wings of insects. Each wing consists of two delicate expansions of the integument or skin of the body; and between the two layers the nervures are placed, and serve to stretch and support the entire structure. The nervures are in reality hollow tubes, which contain prolongations of the trachea or airtubes,' by means of which the breathing of insects is carried on. And blood-vessels also appear to be

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continued into the nervures, as well as filaments from the nervous system. In this way the wings become subservient to the process of breathing or respiration in insects; and this disposition of parts may also have the function of inflating the layers of the wings with air, and of thus assisting the flight.

NESS, LOCH, a lake in Scotland, Inverness-shire, traversed by the Caledonian Canal. It is long and narrow, stretching s.s.w. and N.N.E. about 22 miles, with a breadth varying from 1 to 2 miles. Except at the extremities, where it shallows, its depth is from 100 to 130 fathoms. It occupies the centre of the valley of Glenmore, inclosed on the north side by precipices of reddish-coloured granite, about 1000 feet high, but widening out on the south into a tract of considerable fertility and beauty. Owing to the want of wood, the scenery is not very striking. The outlet of the lake is by the Ness into the Moray Frith.

NEST, the abode or habitation, varying greatly in form, materials, and situation, constructed by birds chiefly for the purposes of incubation and the rearing of the young. Insects also, in many instances, construct abodes or habitations to which the term 'nest' may be correctly enough applied. And even amongst Fishes and the Mammalia examples of nest-building habits are not wanting. Some birds build their nests with what, in the case of rational beings, would be called great ingenuity; others with the greatest negligence. They seem to be governed in the process merely by instinct. Birds of cooler climates, that build early in the spring, require warmth and shelter for their young, and the blackbird and thrush line their nests with a plaster of clay, perfectly excluding the keen icy gales of the season; yet, should accident destroy this first abode, they will construct another, even when the summer is far advanced, upon the model of the first, and with the same precautions against severe weather, when all necessity for such provision has ceased, and the usual temperature of the season rather requires coolness and a free circulation of air. The house-sparrow will commonly build four or five times in the year, and, without the least consideration of site or season, collect a great mass of straw and hay, and gather many feathers to line the nest. The wood-pigeon and jay, which build on the tall underwood in the open air, will construct their nests so slightly, and with such a scanty provision of materials, that they seem scarcely adequate to support their broods; and the rook's nest is at times torn from its airy site, or its eggs are shaken from it, by the gales of spring. The house-martin builds its earthy shed under the roof of the house, &c., and usually brings out its young in July and August; but one rainy day at this period, attended with wind, will often moisten the earth that composes the nest; the cement fails, and all the unfledged young ones are dashed upon the ground. The variety of spots chosen by birds according to their species is endless; and under the various articles relating to birds, insects, &c., information will be found regarding the form and other details of nests.

NESTOR, one of the Greek heroes at Troy distinguished for his great age, experience, and wisdom, as well as for his mild and persuasive eloquence. These are the qualities Homer has attributed to him in the Iliad. He was the son of Neleus, king of Pylos, and Chloris, and was born and brought up at Gerania, in Messenia. He succeeded his father as King of Pylos. In his youth and manhood he distinguished himself by many bold exploits, and early acquired the reputation of a prudent counsellor and persuasive orator. He signalized himself among the Lapithæ, whom he assisted in their war with the Centaurs, and he was present at the hunting of the Calydonian boar. Notwithstanding he had lived through two

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generations when the expedition to Troy was undertaken he nevertheless took part in it, and conducted the forces under his command in twenty, or, according to some accounts, in ninety vessels to Troy. On account of his extreme age he did not take a personal action in the encounters before the city. The part which is attributed to him in the Iliad is that of an experienced counsellor. He endeavoured to produce a reconciliation between Agamemnon and Achilles, and encouraged, advised, instructed, and blamed the Grecian heroes. Without his interference the siege of Troy would more than once have been abandoned. After the capture of Troy he returned to Greece. According to the Odyssey Telemachus here visited him to obtain information concerning Ulysses. Homer states Eurydice, the oldest daughter of Clymenē, to have been his wife; others, Anaxibia, the daughter of Craticus. He had several sons and daughters, but they are not distinguished in history. After Nestor had outlived three generations he died quietly at Pylos, where, in the time of Pausanias, the inhabitants pretended to distinguish his dwelling and his grave.

NESTOR, a Russian historian, born about 1056, was a monk in the Petcherian or cavern monastery in Kiev, and died after 1116. Besides biographies of abbots and other pious members of his monastery, the fragments of which were collected by another hand, he wrote a chronicle in his vernacular tongue, which is an important contribution to the history of the North, he having evidently imitated and profited by the Byzantine historians with regard to the most ancient history. The other sources from which he obtained information are unknown. He wrote much as a contemporary, or from the traditions of an old monk of the monastery, Jan. The original text of his chronicle is lost, and by the interpolations of those who have continued the history (Bishop Sylvester of Kiev, and many others) to the year 1203, it is altered to an incredible degree, so that no correct decision can be passed upon his historical merits before strict inquiries have been made to determine how much of the historical information now extant is derived from the ancient Nestor. A part of Nestor's chronicle from the Pushkinian manuscript was printed in 1814 by Timkofsky at Moscow, and a complete edition in 1841 by Pogodin. A translation into German by Schlözer, which, however, only comes down to 950, was published at Göttingen in 1802-9; and a translation of the whole into French by Louis Paris, at Paris in 1835.

NET (Italian, netto, pure), that which remains of a weight, quantity, &c., after making certain deductions. Thus, in mercantile language, the net weight is the weight of any article after deducting tare and tret; net profits, income, &c., is the absolute profit or income, after deducting expenses, interest, &c. It is opposed to gross (brutto).

NET, an open fabric made of hemp, jute, flax, and sometimes of cotton and other fibres. The open spaces are called meshes, and in order that these may retain their shape and size the fibres of which the net is made have to be knotted at the intersections. Nets were formerly made only by the hand, but an ingenious kind of machinery has at last been invented by which the operation of netting can be performed mechanically. Machinery of this nature was first introduced in the establishment of the Messrs. Stuart at Musselburgh in Scotland. Nets are used for a great variety of purposes, but chiefly for fishing. The three chief kinds of nets used in fishing are the seine, the drift-net, and the trawl. The first two are very long in proportion to their breadth, and differ from one another only in the manner in which they are employed. The seine has a line of corks along one of its long borders, and a line of leaden weights along the other; so that when the net is thrown into the water it assumes a perpendicular position. The driftnet is not loaded with lead, but floats in the water. The trawl, again, is dragged along the bottom by the motion of the boat. Nets are also used to catch birds and quadrupeds, to protect crops from birds, the blossoms of trees from frost, &c.

NETHERLANDS, THE KINGDOM OF THE (Dutch, Het Koningrijk der Nederlanden), a kingdom of Europe which embraces at the present day the north and smaller half of the numerous provinces formerly combined under the same denomination, and lies between lat. 50° 43′ and 53° 30′ N.; and lon. 3° 20° and 7° 20′ E. On the west and north it is bounded by the North Sea, on the east by Prussia (Rhine Province, Westphalia, and Hanover), and on the south by Belgium. The boundaries landwards are scarcely anywhere formed by natural features.

General Description.-The Netherlands (or Low Countries, as the name implies) form the most characteristic portion of the great plain of northern and western Europe. From the middle of Belgium, a few miles north-east of Brussels, the country becomes a dead level, extending in monotonous sandy flats, through Hanover, Jutland, Holstein, and, with little interruption, through Prussia into Russia. But the lowest part of this immense level, and that which has most recently emerged from the sea, is undoubtedly the country lying between the mouths of the Scheldt and Ems. Within this distance the Rhine, joined by the Maas, Ijssel, and other rivers, enters the sea through a number of arms, and sluggish, winding channels, which by no means represent the magnitude of the main stream as it flows higher up. The delta of the Rhine may be conceived to have been in early ages liable to perpetual change of form, as new mud-banks were deposited, blocking up the old chan

sides, it is obvious that the river floods, in forming a domain of alluvial deposits, had to contend with the sea, which washed away the accumulations of mud, or covered them with sand, according to the vicissi tudes of weather and season. The soil of the Netherlands shows everywhere the proofs of this struggle between the ocean and the river, in the alternation of salt and fresh water deposits. It also bears evidence to the fact that these changes, effected by the floods of the Rhine or by irruptions of the sea, occurred frequently, long after the country had become inhabited. Remains of forests now lie buried under