The commerce of the Phoenicians with the countries bordering on the Mediterranean was still more extensive and valuable. At an early period, they established settlements in Cyprus and Rhodes. The former was a very valuable acquisition, from its proximity, the number of its ports, its fertility, and the variety of its vegetable and mineral productions. Having passed successively into Greece, Italy, and Sardinia, they proceeded to explore the southern shores of France and Spain, and the northern shores of Africa. They afterwards adventured upon the Atlantic; and were the first people whose flag was displayed beyond the pillars of Hercules.*

Of the colonies of Tyre, Gades, now Cadiz, was one of the most ancient and important. It is supposed by M. de St. Croix to have originally been distinguished by the name of Tartessus or Tarshish, mentioned in the sacred writings.-(De l'Etat et du Sort des Anciennes Colonies, p. 14.) Heeren, on the other hand, contends, as in the case of Ophir, that by Tarshish is to be understood the whole southern part of Spain, which was early occupied and settled by Phoenician colonists.—(See also Huet, Commerce des Anciens, cap. 8.) At all events, however, it is certain that Cadiz early became the centre of a commerce that extended all along the coasts of Europe as far as Britain, and perhaps the Baltic. There can be no doubt that by the Cassiterides, or Tin Islands, visited by the Phoenicians, is to be understood the Scilly Islands and Cornwall.--(See TIN.) The navigation of the Phoeni cians, probably, also, extended a considerable way along the western coast of Africa; of this, however, no details have reached us.

But, of all the colonies founded by Tyre, Carthage has been by far the most celebrated. It was at first only a simple factory; but was materially increased by the arrival of a large body of colonists, forced by dissensions at home to leave their native land, about 883 years before Christ.--(St. Croix, p. 20.) Imbued with the enterprising mercantile spirit of their ancestors, the Carthaginians rose in no very long period to the highest eminence as a naval and commercial state. The settlements founded by the Phoenicians in Africa, Spain, Sicily, &c. gradually fell into their hands; and after the destruction of Tyre by Alexander, Carthage engrossed a large share of the commerce of which it had previously been the centre. The subsequent history of Carthage, and the misfortunes by which she was overwhelmed, are well known. We shall only, therefore, observe, that commerce, instead of being, as some shallow theorists have imagined, the cause of her decline, was the real source of her power and greatness; the means by which she was enabled to wage a lengthened, doubtful, and desperate contest with Rome herself for the empire of the world.

The commerce and navigation of Tyre probably attained their maximum from 650 to 550 years before Christ. At that period the Tyrians were the factors and merchants of the civilised world; and they enjoyed an undisputed pre-eminence in maritime affairs. The prophet Ezekiel (chap. xxvii.) has described in magnificent terms the glory of Tyre; and has enumerated several of the most valuable productions found in her markets, and the countries whence they were brought. The fir trees of Senir (Hermon), the cedars of Lebanon, the oaks of Bashan (the country to the east of Galilee), the ivory of the Indies, the fine linen of Egypt, and the purple and hyacinth of the isles of Elishah (Peloponnesus), are specified among the articles used for her ships. The inhabitants of Sidon, Arvad (Aradus), Gebel (Byblos), served her as mariners and carpenters. Gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, and vessels of brass; slaves, horses, mules, sheep, and goats; pearls, precious stones, and coral; wheat, balm, honey, oil, spices, and gums; wine, wool, and silk; are mentioned as being brought into the port of Tyre by sea, or to its markets by land, from Syria, Arabia, Damascus, Greece, Tarshish, and other places, the exact site of which it is difficult to determine.†

Such, according to the inspired writer, was Tyre, the "Queen of the waters," before she was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar. But, as has been already remarked, the result of that siege did not affect her trade, which was as successfully and advantageously carried on from the new city as from the old. Inasmuch, however, as Carthage soon after began to rival her as a maritime and mercantile state, this may, perhaps, be considered as the era of her greatest celebrity.

It would not be easy to over-rate the beneficial influence of that extensive commerce from which the Phoenicians derived such immense wealth. It inspired the people with whom they traded with new wants and desires, at the same time that it gave them the means of gratifying them. It every where gave fresh life to industry, and a new and powerful stimulus to invention. The rude uncivilised inhabitants of Greece, Spain, and Northern Africa acquired some knowledge of the arts and sciences practised by the Phoenicians; and the advantages of which they were found to be productive secured their gradual though slow advancement.

Nor were the Phoenicians celebrated only for their wealth, and the extent of their com* Mons Calpe and Mons Abyla, the Gibraltar and Ceuta of modern times.

There is, in Dr. Vincent's Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean (vol. ii. pp 624-652), an elaborate and (like the other parts of that work) prolix commentary on this chapter of Ezekiel, in which most of the names of the things and places mentioned are satisfactorily explained.(See also Heeren on the Phænicians, cap. iv.)

merce and navigation. Their fame, and their right to be classed amongst those who have conferred the greatest benefits on mankind, rest on a still more unassailable foundation. Antiquity is unanimous in ascribing to them the invention and practice of all those arts, sciences, and contrivances that facilitate the prosecution of commercial undertakings. They ake held to be the inventors of arithmetic, weights and measures, of money, of the art of keeping accounts, and, in short, of every thing that belongs to the business of a countinghouse. They were, also, famous for the invention of ship building and navigation; for the discovery of glass--(see GLASS); for their manufactures of fine linen and tapestry; for their skill in architecture, and in the art of working metals and ivory; and still more for the incomparable splendour and beauty of their purple dye.-(See the learned and invaluable work of the President de Goguet, Sur L'Origine des Loix, &c. Eng. trans. vol. i. p. 296., and vol. ii. pp. 95-100.; see also the chapter of Heeren on the Manufactures and Land Commerce of the Phænicians.)

But the invention and dissemination of these highly useful arts form but a part of what the people of Europe owe to the Phoenicians. It is not possible to say in what degree the religion of the Greeks was borrowed from theirs; but that it was to a pretty large extent seems abundantly certain. Hercules, under the name of Melcarthus, was the tutelar deity of Tyre; and his expeditions along the shores of the Mediterranean, and to the straits connecting it with the ocean, seem to be merely a poetical representation of the progress of the Phoenician navigators, who introduced arts and civilisation, and established the worship of Hercules, wherever they went. The temple erected in honour of the god at Gades was long regarded with peculiar veneration.

The Greeks were, however, indebted to the Phoenicians, not merely for the rudiments of civilisation, but for the great instrument of its future progress-the gift of letters! No fact in ancient history is better established than that a knowledge of alphabetic writing was first carried to Greece by Phoenician adventurers: and it may be safely affirmed, that this was the greatest boon any people ever received at the hands of another.

Before quitting this subject, we may briefly advert to the statement of Herodotus with respect to the circumnavigation of Africa by Phoenician sailors. The venerable father of history mentions, that a fleet fitted out by Necho king of Egypt, but manned and commanded by Phoenicians, took its departure from a port on the Red Sea, at an epoch which is believed to correspond with the year 604 before the Christian era, and that keeping always to the right, they doubled the southern promontory of Africa; and returned, after a voyage of 3 years, to Egypt, by the Pillars of Hercules.-(Herod. lib. iv. § 42.) Herodotus further mentions, that they related that, in sailing round Africa, they had the sun on their right hand, or to the north,--a circumstance which he frankly acknowledges seemed incredible to him, but which, as every one is now aware, must have been the case if the voyage was actually performed.

Many learned and able writers, and particularly Gosselin (Recherches sur la Géographie Systématique et Positive des Anciens, tome i. pp. 204-217.), have treated this account as fabulous. But the objections of Gosselin have been successfully answered in an elaborate note by Larcher (Hérodote, tome iii. pp. 458-464. ed. 1802.; and Major Rennell has sufficiently demonstrated the practicability of the voyage (Geography of Herodotus, p. 682. &c.). Without entering upon this discussion, we may observe, that not one of those who question the authenticity of the account given by Herodotus, presume to doubt that the Phoenicians braved the boisterous scas on the coasts of Spain, Gaul, and Britain; and that they had, partially at least, explored the Indian Ocean. But the ships and seamen that did this much, might, undoubtedly, under favourable circumstances, double the Cape of Good Hope. The relation of Herodotus has, besides, such an appearance of good faith; and the circumstance which he doubts, of the navigators having the sun on the right, affords so strong a confirmation of its truth; that there really seems no reasonable ground for doubting that the Phoenicians preceded, by 2,000 years, Vasco de Gama in his perilous enterprise.

Present State of Syria.--The principal modern ports on the coast of Syria are Alexandretta, Latakia, Tripoli, Beyrout, Seyde, and Acre. The commerce which they carry on is but inconsiderable. This, however, is not owing to the badness of the ports, the unsuitableness of the country, or to any natural cause, but wholly to long continued oppression and misgovernment. There is a passage in the dedication to Sandys' Travels, that describes the modern state of Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, &c. with a force and eloquence which it is not very likely will soon be surpassed :

"Those countries, once so glorious and famous for their happy estate, are now, through vice and ingratitude, become the most deplored spectacles of extreme misery; the wild beasts of mankinde having broken in upon them and rooted out all civilitie, and the pride of a sterne and barbarous tyrant possessing the thrones of ancient and just dominion. Who, ayming onely at the height of greatnesse and sensualitie, hath in tract of time reduced so great and goodly a part of the world, to that lamentable distresse and servitude under which (to the astonishment of the understanding beholders) it now faints and groneth. Those

rich lands at this present remain waste and overgrowne with bushes, receptacles of wild beasts, of theeves and murderers; large territories dispeopled or thinly inhabited; goodly cities made desolate; sumptuous buildings become ruines; glorious temples either subverted, or prostituted to impietie; true religion discountenanced and oppressed; all nobilitie extinguished; no light of learning permitted, nor vertue cherished; violence and rapine insulting over all, and leaving no securitie save to an abject mind and unlookt on povertie."

Those who compare this beautiful passage with the authentic statements of Volneyincomparably the best of the modern travellers who have visited the countries referred to-will find that it is as accurate as it is eloquent.

U. V.

VALONIA, a species of acorn, forming a very considerable article of export from the Morea and the Levant. The more substance there is in the husk, or cup of the acorn, the better. It is of a bright drab colour, which it preserves so long as it is kept dry: any dampness injures it; as it then turns black, and loses both its strength and value. It is principally used by tanners, and is always in demand. Though a very bulky article, it is uniformly bought and sold by weight. A ship can only take a small proportion of her registered tonnage of valonia, so that its freight per ton is always high. The price in the London market, in March, 1834, varied from 127. to 15/. per ton.

The entries of valonia for home consumption in 1631 and 1832 amounted, at an average, to 146,846 cwt. a year. Of 134,307 cwt. of valonia, imported in 1831, 102,226 were brought from Turkey and Continental Greece, exclusive of the Morea; 17,645 cwt. mostly at second hand, from Italy and the Italian islands; 7,461 cwt. from the Ionian Islands; 3,116 from the Morea and the Greek islands; and 3,859 cwt. from the Philippines.

VALPARAISO, the principal sea-port of Chili, in lat. 33° 1' 48" S., long. 71° 31′ 8′′ W. Population uncertain, perhaps 6,000 or 7,000. The water in the bay is deep, and it affords a secure anchorage, except during northerly gales, to the violence of which it is exposed; but as the holding ground is good, and the pull of the anchor against a steep hill, accidents seldom occur to ships properly found in anchors and cables. There is no mole or jetty; but the water close to the shore is so deep, that it is customary for the smaller class of vessels to carry out an anchor to the northward, and to moor the ship with the stern ashore by another cable made fast to the shore. Large ships lie a little further off, and load and unload by means of lighters. The best shelter is in that part called the Fisherman's Bay, lying between the castle and fort St. Antonio, where, close to a clear shingle beach, there is 9 fathoms water. In the very worst weather, a landing may be effected in this part of the bay. (See Miers's Travels in Chili and La Plata, vol. i. p. 440., where there is a plan of Valparaiso.) The harbours of Valdivia and Concepcion are much superior to that of Valparaiso; the former being, indeed, not only the best in Chili, but second to few in any part of the world. But Valparaiso, being near the capital, Santiago, and being the central dépôt for the resources of the province, is most frequented. The town is inconveniently situated, at the extremity of a mountainous ridge; most of the houses being built either upon its acclivity or in its breaches. Large quantities of corn and other articles of provision are shipped here for Callao and Panama, but principally for the former. Exclusive of wheat, the principal articles of export are tallow and hides, copper, the precious metals, indigo, wool, sarsaparilla, &c. It appears from the account laid before the reader in another article-(see vol. ii. p. 345.),—that the produce of the gold mines of Chili, had materially increased during the 20 years ending with 1829, as compared with the previous 20 years. At present, the average produce of both the gold and silver mines may, we believe, be taken at about 175,000l. a year. There is a great want of capital in the country; and the anarchy and insecurity that have prevailed since the commencement of the revolutionary war have been very unfavourable to all sorts of industry. There can, however, be no doubt that Chili has already gained considerably, and that she will every day gain more, by her emancipation from the yoke of Old Spain. The trade we carry on with this distant country already amounts to above 1,000,000%. a year; and there can be no doubt that it will become far more extensive. In 1831, the declared or real value of the exports of British produce and manufactures from this country to Chili amounted to 651,6177; of this sum, the exports of cotton goods amounted to about 460,000/., those of woollens to 158,000/., linen to 19,0007. &c. Chili also imports spices, tea, wine, sugar, coffee, tobacco, &c. A small part, however, of the imports are re-exported for Peru.

A country with a scanty population, which imports so extensively, cannot be in the wretched condition that Mr. Miers and other disappointed travellers would have us believe. The candour and good sense of M. de la Peronse are above all question; and every one who compares his remarks on the condition of Chili with what has now been stated, must see that its commerce, at least, has gained prodigiously by the revolution.

The influence of the government is in constant opposition to that of the climate. The system of prohibition exists at Chili in its fullest extent. This kingdom, of which the productions would, if increased to their maximum, supply all Europe; whose wool would be sufficient for the manufactures of France and England; and whose herds, converted into salt provisions, would produce a vast revenue ;--this kingdom, alas! has no commerce. Four or five small vessels bring, every year, from Lima, tobacco, sugar, and some articles of European manufacture, which the miserable inhabitants can obtain only at second or third hand, after they have been charged with heavy customs duties at Cadiz, at Lima, and lastly, at their arrival in Chili; in exchange they give their tallow, hides, some deals, and their wheat, which, however, is at so low a price, that the cultivator has no inducement to extend his tillage. Thus Chili, with all its gold, and articles of exchange, can scarcely procure sugars, tobacco, stuffs, linens, cambrics, and hardware, necessary to the ordinary wants of life.”(Perouse's Voyage, vol. i. p. 50. Eng. ed.)

Instead, however, of 4 or 5 small ships from Lima, in 1831, 43 British ships, carrying 8,281 tons, entered Valparaiso only, besides several at the other ports! All sorts of European goods are carried direct to Chili, and are admitted at reasonable duties. The advantages resulting from this extensive intercourse with foreigners, and from the settlement of English adventurers in the country, have been already immense, and will every day become more visible. It was impossible, considering the ignorance of the mass of the people, that the old system of tyranny and superstition could be pulled to pieces without a good deal of violence and mischief; but the foundations of a better order of things have been laid; nor can there be a doubt that Chili is destined to become an opulent and a flourishing country.

Monies, Weights, and Measures of Chili are the same as those of Spain; for which, see CADIZ. The quintal of 4 arrobas, or 100 lbs., : 101:44 lbs. avoirdupois. The fanega, or principal corn measure, contains 3,439 English cubic inches, and is therefore 1.599 Winch. bushels. Hence 5 fanegas = i Winch. quarter very nearly. The vara, or measure of length, 33.384 Eng. inches.

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, a large island belonging to Great Britain, forming part of Australia, lying between 41° 20′ and 43° 30′ S. lat., and 144° 40′ and 148° 20′ W. long. It is supposed to contain about 15,000,000 acres.

This land was discovered by the Dutch navigator Tasman, in 1642, and was named in honour of Anthony Van Diemen, at that time governor-general of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies. Previously to 1798, it was supposed to form part of New Holland, but it was then ascertained to be an island. It was taken possession of by the British in 1803; and in 1804, Hobart Town, the capital, was founded.

The surface is generally hilly and mountainous; but, though none of the land be of the first quality, there are several moderately fertile plains, and a good deal of the hilly ground is susceptible of being cultivated. On the whole, however, it is not supposed that more than about a third part of the entire surface of the island can be considered arable; but about a third more may be advantageously used as sheep pasture. As compared with New Holland, it is well watered. The climate, though very variable, is, generally speaking, good, and suitable for European constitutions; and it is not exposed to the tremendous droughts that occasion so much mischief in New South Wales. Wheat is raised in considerable quantities. Wool, however, is at present the staple produce of the colony.

Van Diemen's Land, like New South Wales, was originally intended to serve as a penal colony, and convicts are still sent to it; latterly, however, it has received a very considerable number of free settlers. In 1830, the total population of the island, exclusive of aborigines, amounted to 23,169, of whom about 10,000 were convicts. The disparity between the sexes is not quite so great here as in New South Wales.

The prosperity of the colony was formerly a good deal retarded by the enormities committed by a banditti of runaway convicts, known by the name of bush-rangers; and more recently by the hostilities of the natives. Vigorous measures have, however, been adopted for the suppression of such outrages, by confining the natives within a limited district; and it is to be hoped that they may be effectual.

Hobart Town is situated in the southern part of the island, on the west side of the river Derwent, near its junction with Storm Bay, in lat. 42° 54′ S., lon. 147° 28' E. The water is deep, and the anchorage good. A jetty has been constructed, accessible to the largest ships. The situation appears to have been very well chosen; and the town has been judiciously laid out. In December, 1832, the district of Hobart Town contained 10,101 inhabitants, of which were, free, males 3,850, females 2,776; convicts, males 2,699, females 776. The population of the town itself, at the epoch referred to, was about 9,600. The houses are supposed to be worth, at an average, 50l. a year. There are several printing establishments in the town, and no fewer than 9 or 10 newspapers, some of them very well conducted. There is also a Book Society, a Mechanics' Institute, and several respectable schools and academies. The Van Diemen's Land Banking Company, the Derwent Bank, and the Commercial Bank, have each offices in Hobart Town. They are joint-stock companies.

Launceston, the second town in the island, is situated in the northern part, at the head of the navigable river Tamar, which falls into Port Dalrymple. Its population may amount

to about 5,000. It has a considerable trade with Sydney and Hobart Town, and recently it has begun to trade direct to England.

Trade of Van Diemen's Land.-Imports.-Malt liquors, rum, brandy, and wire, form the principal part of the imports into the colony. Next to them are piece goods, hardware, tea, sugar, &c.

Account of the Exports from the United Kingdom to Van Diemen's Land during each of the Five Years ending with 1831.

Exclusive of the imports from the mother country, Van Diemen's Land imports sugar from the Mauritius, wine and fruit from the Cape, tea from China or Singapore, piece goods from India, tobacco from Brazil, and beef, bacon, cheese, horses, &c. from New South Wales. According to the statement in the papers published by the Board of Trade (vol. i. p. 251.), the total value of the imports in 1830, was 255,298.; of which, 153,475. was supplied by Great Britain, 93,2517. by British possessions, and 8,5691. by foreign states.

Exports.-Wool forms by far the principal article of export, and next to it is wheat, principally sent to Sydney, whale oil, whalebone, timber, mimosa bark, live stock, potatoes, &c. The increase in the exports of wool is quite extraordinary. It is almost wholly brought to England.

Account of the Imports of Wool from Van Diemen's Land into the United Kingdom from 1827 to 1833,

In 1831, the imports of whale oil from Van Diemen's Land amounted to 848 tuns; and during the same year, 39,264 cwt. of bark were imported. The total real value of the articles exported in 1830 was estimated at 170,000l., distributed as follows:

Coins, Weights, and Measures, same as in England. The Spanish dollar circulates at 48. 4d.

Shipping, &c.-In 1830, there belonged to the island 26 vessels, of the aggregate burden of 2,151 tons.

Arrivals at Hobart Town in 1832.-There arrived during the year, 51 ships, of the burden of 18,214 tons; 25 brigs, of 4,201 tons; and 29 schooners, of 1,948 tons; making in all, 105 vessels, of the burden of 24,363 tons. Of these, were from England 41, New South Wales 35, India and China 3, Swan River 3, New Zealand 6, fishery 2, Mauritius 5, Launceston 10, and Desolation Island 1.

Revenue, &c.-The customs duties collected in the colony amount to about 50,000l. a year, and the whole ordinary revenue is about 70,000l.; to which has to be added, the revenue derived from the sale of land, and other sources. Government contributes about 120,000l. a year in aid of the colonial revenue, to defray the expenses of the convict establishments, &c. For the regulations as to the granting of land in Van Diemen's Land, &c., see SYDNEY. Immigrants. Of these there arrived at Van Diemen's Land, during 1832, men 926, women 769, children 416; in all, 2,131.

*The imports of wool from New South Wales in 1833, were 1 969,608 lbs.; making the total imports from Australia in that year, 3,516,809 lbs.