goods as can be preserved, to the amount of two thirds of the estimated value of all goods other than gold and silver, and to four fifths of the value of the latter. No loan is for less than 3 francs (28. 6d.). The advances are made for a year, but the borrower may renew the engagement. Interest is fixed at the rate of one per cent. per month.

The Mont de Piété, receives annually about 1,200,000 articles, upon which it advances from 20,000,000 to 21,000,000 hancs; it has generally from 600,000 to 650,000 articles in its possession. The expense of management amounts to from 60 to 65 centimes for each article; so that a loan of 3 francs never defrays the expenses it occasions, and the profits are wholly derived from those that exceed 5 francs. At an average, the profits amount to about 280,000 francs, of which only about 155,000 are derived from loans upon deposit, about 125,000 being the produce of other funds at the disposal of the company.

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5

There are no means of making a statement of this sort with respect to London; but, were it possible to make it, the proportion of forfeited pledges would be found, we have no doubt, much greater.

In some respect, particularly the lowness of interest upon small loans, and the greater vigilance exercised with respect to the reception of stolen goods, the Mont de Piété has an advantage over the pawnbroking establishments in this country. It may be doubted, however, whether it is, on the whole, so well fitted to attain its objects. The limitation of the loans to 3 francs would be felt to be a serious grievance here, and it can hardly be otherwise in France; nor is to be supposed, that the servants of a great public establishment will be so ready to assist poor persons, having none but inferior articles to offer in security, as private individuals anxious to get business. And such, in point of fact, is found to be the case, not in Paris only, but in all those parts of the Continent where the business of pawnbroking is confined to a few establishments. And hence it would seem that, were the modifications already suggested adopted, our system would be the best of any.

PEARL-ASH. See POTASH.

PEARLS (Du. Paarlen; Fr. Perles; Ger. Perlen; It. Perle; Lat. Margarita; Rus. Shemts hug, Perlü; Sp. Perlas; Arab. Looloo; Cyng. Mootoo; Hind. Mootie,) are well known globular concretions found in several species of shell-fish, but particularly the motherof-pearl oyster (Concha margaritifera Lin.). Pearls should be chosen round, of a bright translucent silvery whiteness, free from stains and roughness. Having these qualities, the largest are of course the most valuable. The larger ones have frequently the shape of a pear; and when these are otherwise perfect, they are in great demand for ear-rings. Ceylon pearls are most esteemed in England.

Value, &c. of Pearls.-Pearls were in the highest possible estimation in ancient Rome, and bore an enormous price.-(Principium culmenque omnium rerum pretii, margarita tenet.-Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. ix. c. 35.) Their price in modern times has very much declined; partly, no doubt, from changes of manners and fashions; but more probably, from the admirable imitations of pearls that may be obtained at a very low price. According to Mr. Milburn, a handsome necklace of Ceylon pearls, smaller than a large pea, costs from 170l. to 300%.; but one of pearls about the size of peppercorns may be had for 157.: the pearls in the former sell at a guinea each, and those in the latter at about 1s. 6d. When the pearls dwindle to the size of a small shot, they are denominated seed pearls, and are of little value. They are mostly sent to China. One of the most remarkable pearls of which we have any authentic account was bought by Tavernier, at Catifa, in Arabia, a fishery famous in the days of Pliny, for the enormous sum of 110,000l.! It is pear-shaped, regular, and without blemish. The diameter is 63 inch at the largest part, and the length from 2 to 3 inches. Much difference of opinion has existed among naturalists with respect to the production of pearls in the oyster; but it seems now to be generally believed that it is the result of disease, and is formed in the same manner as bezoar- (see BEZOAR); pearls, like it, consisting of successive coats spread with perfect regularity round a foreign nucleus. In fact, the Chinese throw into a species of shell-fish (mytilus cygneus, or swan muscle), when it opens, 5 or 6 very minute mother-of-pearl beads strung on a thread; and in the course of a year they are found covered with a pearly crust, which perfectly resembles the real pearl.-(Milburn's Orient. Com.; Ainslie's Mat. Indica, &c.)

Pearl Fisheries.-The pearl oyster is fished in various parts of the world, particularly on the west coast of Ceylon; at Tuticoreen, in the province of Tinnevelley, on the coast of Coromandel; at the Bahrein Islands, in the Gulf of Persia; at the Sooloo Islands; off the coast of Algiers; off St. Margarita, or Pearl Islands, in the West Indies, and other places on the coast of Colombia; and in the Bay of Panama, in the South Sea. Pearls have sometimes been found on the Scotch coast, and in various other places.

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The pearl fishery of Tuticoreen is monopolized by the East India Company, and that of Ceylon by government. But these monopolies are of no value: as in neither case does the sum for which the shery is let equal the expenses incurred in guarding, surveying, and managing the banks. It is, therefore, sufficiently obvious that this system ought to be abolished, and every one allowed to fish on paying a moderate licence duty. The fear of exhausting the banks is quite ludicrous. The fishery would be abandoned as unprofitable long before the breed of oysters had been injuriously diminished; and in a few years it would be as productive as ever. Besides giving fresh life to the fishery, the abolition of the monopoly would put an end to some very oppressive regulations, enacted by the Dutch more than a century ago.

Persian Gulf. The most extensive pearl fisheries are those on the several banks not far distant from the island of Bahrein, on the west side of the Persian Gulf, in lat. 26° 50′ N., lon. 51° 10′ E.; but pearl oysters are found along the whole of the Arabian coast, and round almost all the islands of the gulf. Such as are fished in the sea near the islands of Karrak and Corgo contain pearis said to be of a superior colour and description. They are formed of 8 layers or folds, whilst others have only 5, but the water is too deep to make fishing for them either very profitable or easy. Besides, the entire monopoly of the fishery is in the hands of the sheik of Bushire, who seems to consider these islands as his immediate property.

"The fishing season is divided into two portions-the one called the short and cold, the other the long and hot. In the cooler weather of the month of June, diving is practised along the coast in shallow water; but it is not until the intensely hot months of July, August and September, that the Bahrein banks are much frequented. The water on them is about 7 fathoms deep, and the divers are much inconvenienced when it is cold; indeed, they can do little when it is not as warm as the air, and it frequently becomes even more so in the hottest months of the summer. When they dive, they compress the nostrils tightly with a small peace of horn, which keeps the water out, and stuff their ears with bees'-wax for the same purpose. They attach a net to their waists, to contain the oysters; and aid their descent by means of a stone, which they hold by a rope attached to a boat, and shake it when they wish to be drawn up. From what I could learn, 2 minutes may be considered as rather above the average time of their remaining under water. Although severe labour, and very exhausting at the time, diving is not considered particularly injurious to the constitution; even old men practise it. A person usually dives from 12 to 15 times a day in favourable weather; but, when otherwise, 3 or 4 times only. The work is performed on an empty stomach. When the diver becomes fatigued, he goes to sleep, and does not eat until he has slept some time.

"At Bahrein alone, the annual amount produced by the pearl fishery may be reckoned at from 200,000l. to 240,000l. If, to this, the purchases made by the Bahrein merchants or agents at Aboottabee Sharga, Ras-ul Khymack, &c. be added, which may amount to half as much more, there will be a total of about 300,0001. or 360,000l.; but this is calculated to include the whole pearl trade of the gulf; for it is believed that all the principal merchants of India, Arabia, and Persia, who deal in pearls, make their purchases, through agents, at Bahrein. I have not admitted in the above estimate much more than one sixth of the amount some native merchants have stated it to be, as a good deal seemed to be matter of guess or opinion, and it is difficult to get at facts. My own estimate is in some measure checked by the estimated profits of the small boats. But even the sum which I have estimated is an enormous annual value for an article found in other parts of the world as well as here, and which is never used in its best and most valuable state, except as an ornament. Large quantities of the seed pearls are used throughout Asia, in the composition of majoons, or electuaries, to form which all kinds of precious stones are occasionally mixed, after being pounded, excepting, indeed, diamonds; these being considered, from their hardness, as utterly indigestible. The majoon, in which there is a large quantity of pearls, is much sought for and valued, on account of its supposed stimulating and restorative qualities.

"Bahrein pearl fishery boats are reckoned to amount to about 1,500, and the trade is in the hands of merchants, some of whom possess considerable capital. They bear hard on the producers or fishers, and even those who make the greatest exertions in diving hardly have food to eat. The merchant advances some money to the fishermen at cent. per cent, and a portion of dates, rice, and other necessary articles, all at the supplier's own price; he also lets a boat to them, for which he gets I share of the gross profits of all that is fished; and, finally, he purchases the pearls nearly at his own price, for the unhappy fishermen are generally in his debt, and therefore at his mercy."-(Manuscript Notes communicated by Major D. Wilson, late Political Resident at Bushire.)

The fishery at Algiers was formed by an English association in 1826, but we are ignorant of their

success.

The pearl fisheries on the coast of Colombia were at one time of very great value. In 1587, upwards of 697 lbs. of pearls are said to have been imported into Seville. Philip II. had one from St. Margarita, which weighed 250 carats, and was valued at 150,000 dollars. But for many years past the Colombian pearl fisheries have been of comparatively little importance. During the mania for joint stock companies, in 1825, two were formed;-one on a large scale, for prosecuting the pearl fishery on the coast of Colombia; and another, on a smaller scale, for prosecuting it in the Bay of Panama and the Pacific. Both were abandoned in 1826.

The best fishery ground is said to be in from 6 to 8 fathoms water. The divers continue under water from a minute to a minute and a half, or at most 2 minutes. They have a sack or bag fastened to the neck, in which they bring up the oysters. The exertion is extremely violent; and the divers are unhealthy and short-lived.

PEARL SHELLS, Commonly called Mother-of-pearl shells, are imported from various parts of the East, and consist principally of the shells of the pearl oyster, from the Gulf of Persia and other places, particularly the Sooloo Islands, situate between Borneo and the Philippines, the shores of which afford the largest and finest shells hitherto discovered. On the inside, the shell is beautifully polished, and of the whiteness and water of pearl itself: it has the same lustre on the outside, after the external lamina have been removed. Mother-ofpearl shells are extensively used in the arts, particularly in inlaid work, and in the manufacture of handles for knives, buttons, toys, snuff boxes, &c. The Chinese manufacture them into beads, fish, counters, spoons, &c.; giving them a finish to which European artists have not been able to attain. Shells for the European market should be chosen of the largest size, of a beautiful pearly lustre, thick and even, and free from stains. Reject such as are small, cracked, or broken, or have lumps on them. When stowed loose as dunnage, they are sometimes allowed to pass free of freight.-(Milburn's Orient. Com.) The imports during the 3 years ending with 1832 were-1830, 465,591 lbs.; 1831, 510,492 do.; 1832, 721,527 do. — (Parl. Paper, No. 425. Sess. 1833.)

PEAS (Ger. Erbsen; Fr. Pois; It. Piselli, Bisi; Sp. Pesoles, Guisantes; Rus. Goroch). The pea is one of the most esteemed of the leguminous or pulse plants. It is supposed to be indigenous to the south of Europe, and was cultivated by the Greeks and Romans, the latter of whom probably introduced it into Britain. There are many varieties; but the common garden pea (Pisum sativum), and the common grey or field pea (Pisum arvense), are the most generally cultivated; being reared in large quantities in all parts of the country, particularly in Kent. But since the introduction of the drill husbandry, the culture of the pea as a field crop has been to a considerable extent superseded by the bean. Sometimes, however, it is drilled along with the latter; for, being a climbing plant, it attaches itself to the bean, so as to admit the ground being hoed; at the same time that the free admission of air about its roots promotes its growth. It is not possible to frame any estimate of the consumption of peas. The field pea is now hardly ever manufactured into meal for the purpose of being made into bread, as was formerly the case in many parts of the country; but there is reason to think that the garden pea is now more extensively used than ever.-(Loudon's Ency. of Agriculture; Brown on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 72. For an account of the laws regulating the importation, &c. of peas, see CORN LAWS AND CORN TRADE.) Leguminous crops are very extensively cultivated in India. The exports of pulse from Calcutta, in 1830, exceeded 1,300 tons.

PECK, a dry measure for grain, pulse, &c. The standard, or Imperial peck, contains 2 gallons, or 554.55 cubic inches. Four pecks make a bushel, and 4 bushels a coomb.-(See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.)

PELLITORY, the root of a perennial plant (Anthemis pyrethrum), a native of the Levant, Barbary, and the south of Europe. The root is long, tapering, about the thickness of the finger, with a brownish cuticle. It is imported packed in bales, sometimes mixed with other roots, from which, however, it is easily distinguished. It is inodorous. When chewed, it seems at first to be insipid, but after a few seconds it excites a glowing heat, and a pricking sensation on the tongue and lips which remains för 10 or 12 minutes. The pieces break with a short resinous fracture; the transverse section presenting a thick brown bark, studded with black shining points, and a pale yellow radiated inside. It is used in m licine as a stimulant.(Thomson's Dispensatory.) The price varies, including the duty, (6d.), from 28. to 2s. 6d. per Ib.

PENCILS (Ger. Pinsel; Du. Pinseelen; Fr. Pinceaux; It. Pennelli; Sp. Pinceles), the instruments used by painters in laying on their colours. They are of various kinds, and made of various materials; some being formed of the bristles of the boar, and others of camel's hair, the down of swans, &c.

PENCILS, BLACK LEAD. See BLACK LEAD PENCILS.

PENKNIVES (Ger. Federmesser; Fr. Canifs; It. Temperini; Sp. Corta plumas), small knives, too well known to need any particular description, used in making and mending pens. The best and most highly ornamented penknives are manufactured in London and Sheffield.

PENNY, formerly a silver, but now a copper coin. This was the first silver coin struck in England by our Saxon ancestors, being the 240th part of their pound; so that its weight was about 22 grains Troy.

PENS (Fr. Plumes à écrire; Ger. Schreibfedern; It. Penne da scrivere; Rus. Pera Stwoli), well known instruments for writing, usually formed of the quills of the goose, swan, or some other bird. Metallic pens have been occasionally employed for a lengthened period: but it is only within these few years that they have been extensively introduced. They first began to be largely manufactured by Mr. John Perry, of London. Mr. P. having succeeded in giving to his pens a greater degree of softness and elasticity than was possessed by any metallic pens previously in use, they speedily obtained a very extensive sale. This success brought crowds of rivals into the field; so that metallic pens are now manufactured in vast quantities, and of an immense variety of forms. But though they have superseded, to a very considerable extent, the use of quills, and have some peculiar advantages, it does not appear possible to give them the elasticity of the quill, nor to fit them so well for quick and easy writing.

PENNYWEIGHT, a Troy weight, being the 20th part of an ounce, containing 24

grains.

PEPPER (Fr. Poivre; Ger. Pfeffer; Du. Peper; It. Pepe; Sp. Pimienta; Rus. Perez; Lat. Piper), the berry or fruit of different species of plants, having an aromatic, extremely hot, pungent taste, used in seasoning, &c. The following sorts of pepper are met with in commerce:

I. BLACK PEPPER (Fr. Poivre; Ger. Schwarzen pfeffer; It. Pepe negro; Sp. Pimienta; Sans. Mercha; Hind. Gol-mirch; Malay, Lada; Jav. Mariha), the fruit of a creeping plant (Piper nigrum), one of the pepper genus, of which there are upwards of 80 species. It is cultivated extensively in India, Siam, the Eastern islands, &c. It requires the support of other trees, to which it readily adheres. It climbs to the height of 20 feet; but is said to bear best when restrained to the height of 12 feet. It begins to produce at about the

3d year, and is in perfection at the 7th; continues in this state for 3 or 4 years; and declines for about as many more, until it ceases to be worth keeping. The fruit grows abundantly from all the branches, in long small clusters of from 20 to 50 grains; when ripe, it is of a bright red colour. After being gathered, it is spread on mats in the sun, when it loses its red colour, and becomes black and shrivelled as we see it. The grains are separated from the stalks by hand rubbing. That which has been gathered at the proper period shrivels the least; but if plucked too soon, it will become broken and dusty in its removal from place to place. The vine produces two crops in the year; but the seasons are subject to great irregularities.

Pepper should be chosen of a pungent aromatic odour, an extremely hot and acrid taste, in large grains, firm, sound, and with few wrinkles-for of these it always has some. Reject that which is shrivelled, or small grained, or which on being rubbed will break to pieces.

In point of quality, the pepper of Malabar is usually reckoned the best; but there is no material difference between it and that of Sumatra, and the other islands. In the market of Bengal, where they meet on equal terms, the produce of Malabar is generally about 2 per cent. higher than the other. In Europe, there is generally a difference of d. per lb. in favour of Malabar; but in China they are held in equal estimation.

Black pepper sold ground, is said to be often adulterated with burnt crust of bread.

II. WHITE PEPPER is made by blanching the finest grains of the common black pepper, by steeping them for a while in water, and then gently rubbing them, so as to remove the dark outer coat. It is milder than the other, and is much prized by the Chinese; but very little is imported into England.

III. CAYENNE PEPPER is the produce of several varieties of the Capsicum, an annual plant, a native of both the Indies. The best, which is brought home from the West Indies ready prepared, is made from the Capsicum baccatum (bird pepper). It has an aromatic, extremely pungent, acrimonious taste, setting the mouth, as it were, on fire, and the impression remaining long on the palate. It is sometimes adulterated with muriate of soda; and sometimes with a very deleterious substance, the red oxide of lead; but this fraud may be detected by its weight, and by chemical tests.-(See CHILLIES.)

IV. LONG PEPPER.-This species is the produce of a perennial (Piper longum), a native of Malabar and Bengal. The fruit is hottest in its immature state; and is therefore gathered while green, and dried in the sun. It is imported in entire spikes, which are about 1 inch long. It has a weak aromatic odour, an intensely fiery pungent taste, and a dark grey colour. The root of long pepper is a favourite medicine among the Hindoos.

The quantities of the last 3 specics of pepper imported are quite inconsiderable, compared with the quantity of black pepper.-(Milburn's Orient. Com.; Ainslie's Mat. Indica; Thomson's Dispensatory, &c.)

Trade in Pepper. Consumption of, and Duties on, in England.—Pepper is extensively used, all over Europe and the East, as a condiment. It was originally imported into this country by way of the Levant (see vol. i. p. 617.); and for many years after the establishment of the East India Company, it formed the most important article of their imports. In nothing has the beneficial effect of opening the India trade been so unequivocally displayed as in the instance of pepper. The private traders have resorted to new markets, and discovered new sources of supply which had hitherto been wholly unexplored; so that there has been not only a very great increase in the quantity of pepper brought to Europe, but also a very great fall in its price, which does not now exceed a third of what it amounted to in 1814!

The quantities in the following Table are taken from the Parl. Papers, No. 22. Sess. 1830, and No. 425. Sess. 1833; the prices have been supplied by Mr. Cook. Amount of the Total Quantity of Pepper imported from the East Indies into Great Britain, with its Price in Bond in London, each Year, from 1814.

Until 1823,

Pepper is one of the most grossly over-taxed articles in the British tariff. the duty was 2s. 6d. per lb.-a duty so exorbitant, that one would be inclined to think it had been imposed in order to put a total stop to the use of the article. In 1823, the duty on pepper from a British possession was reduced to 1s. per lb. ; but even this duty, as compared with the price of the article (3d. to 4d. per lb.) is quite enormous, amounting to no less than from 400 to 300 per cent.! It will be seen from the subjoined Table that the reduction of the duty, in 1823, has increased the consumption from about 1,400,000 lbs. to 2,225,000 lbs. a year; and were the duty reduced, as it ought to be, to 2d. or at most 3d. per lb., so that pepper might become accessible to the lower classes, to whom its free use would be of Infinite importance, we have not the slightest doubt that in a very short period the consump

tion would amount to 5,000,000 or 6,000,000 lbs. There would either be no loss of revenue by such a measure, or none worth mentioning; and it is not to be endured that the bulk of the people should be deprived of so useful a commodity, and the trade of the country seriously injured, by keeping up oppressive duties, which serve no purpose whatever, unless it be to keep alive the remembrance of the ignorance and rapacity of those by whom they were imposed. We have already shown (see vol. i., p. 639.) the difficulties under which the dealers in pepper labour, in consequence of the absurd regulations as to the warehousing of commodities from India.

Account of the Quantity of all Sorts of Pepper retained for Home Consumption in the United Kingdom, the Rates of Duty thereon, and the Total Revenue derived from the same, in each Year since 1809.

Supply of Pepper.-The following instructive details with respect to the supply of pepper are taken from the Singapore Chronicle; to which they were contributed by John Crawfurd, Esq.-than whom there can be no more competent authority as to such subjects.

Of all the products of the Eastern islands, and of the countries immediately in their neighbourhood, in demand anong strangers, black pepper is the most important, both in value and quantity. The pepper countries extend from about the longitude of 96° to that of 115° E., beyond which no pepper is to be found; and they reach from 5° S. latitude to about 12° N., where it again ceases. Within these limits we have Sumatra, Borneo, the Malayan peninsula, and certain countries lying on the east coast of the Gulf of Siam.

The whole produce of the island of Sumatra is estimated not to fall short of 168,000 piculs, of 1331 lbs. each; the south-west coast being said to produce 150,000, and the north-east coast 18,000 piculs. The pepper ports on the north-east coast of Sumatra are Lankat and Delli, with Sardang. The first 2 produce 15,000 piculs, and the latter 3,000 annually. The cultivation is carried on by the Batta nation in the interior.

The ports on the south-west coast, and the amount of their produce, as given in a recent estimate, are as follow: viz. port and district of Trumah, 40,000; district of Pulo Dua, 4,000: ditto of Cluat, 30.000; coast from Tampat Tuan to Susu, 33,000; port of Susu, 1,000; Kualla Batta, 20,000; Analabu, 2,000; districts to the north of Analabu, 20,000; making in all, 150,000 piculs.

Here it is of importance to remark, that the culture and production are extremely fluctuating. During the last pepper season, there obtained cargoes on the west coast of Sumatra, 27 American ships, 6 country traders, 4 large French ships, besides the ships belonging to the East India Company, which generally take away 500 tons. Nearly the whole of this trade is in the hands of Europeans or Americans; the pepper finds its way to Europe, to America, and in a small proportion to China.

The north-east coast of Sumatra, from Pedier down to the Carimons, is estimated, as already mentioned, to produce 18,000 piculs. Prince of Wales Island is the principal depot for this, from whence the greatest part is exported to India and China. The produce of Prince of Wales Island itself is about 15,000 piculs.

Of the islands at the mouth of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, Bingtang, on which Rhio is situated, and adjacent islands, produce 10,000 piculs; and Lingga about 2,000. A large proportion of this is brought to Singapore, which exported last year about 21,000 piculs; some part to Bengal and China, but principally to Europe direct, in free traders.

The west coast of the Malayan peninsula produces no pepper, with the exception of about 4,000 piculs afforded by the territory of Malacca.

On the east coast of the peninsula, the production of pepper is very considerable. The ports of Patani and Calantan-chiefly the latter-yield about 16,000 piculs annually, and Tringanu about 8,000. A portion of this is brought to Singapore and Penang; but we believe the greater proportion goes direct to China in junks, of which 3 large ones frequent Tringanu annually, and 1 Calantan. The Americans, too, occasionally visit these ports. In the year 1821, 3 vessels of considerable burden obtained

cargoes.

The east coast of the Gulf of Siam, from the latitude of 10° to that of 121° N., affords an extensive produce of pepper. This coast is scarcely known, even by name, to the traders of Europe. The principal ports here are Chantibun, Tungyai, Pongsom, and Kampop; the first 2 being under the dominion of Siam, and the latter under that of Kamboja. The whole produce is estimated at not less than 60,000 piculs; 40.000 of which are brought at once to the capital of Siam as tribute to the king, and the whole finds its way to China in junks. It remains only to estimate the produce of the island of Borneo. The whole produce of Borneo is estimated at about 20,000 piculs; of which a large share is carried to China