[The expense for maintaining light-houses in the United States amounted, in 1835, to $235,056 70; in 1836, to $283,759 35; in 1837, to $271,355 36; and, in 1838, to $304,521 08.

We take the following schedule of the light-houses and beacons in the United States, with the number of lamps in each, on the first day of January, 1838, from a report transmitted to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury.

Schedule of the light-houses and beacons in the United States, with the number of lamps lighted in each on the first day of January, 1838.

LIMA, the capital of Peru, on the west coast of South America, in lat. 12° 2′ 45′′ S., lon, 77° 7′ 15′′ W. Population variously estimated; but may probably amount to from 50,000 to 60,000.

Callao, the port of Lima, is about 6 miles W. from the latter. The harbour lies to the north of a projecting point of land, in the angle formed by the small uninhabited island of San Lorenzo. Previously to the emancipation of Peru, and the other ci-devant Spanish provinces in the New World, Lima was the grand entrepôt for the trade of all the west coast of South America; but a considerable portion of the foreign trade of Peru is now carried on through Buenos Ayres, and the former is also in the habit of importing European goods at second hand from Valparaiso and other ports in Chili. The exports from Lima consist principally of copper and tin, silver, cordovan leather, and soap, vicunna wool, quinquina, &c. The imports consist principally of woollen and cotton stuffs, and hardware, from England; silks, brandy, and wine, from Spain and France; stock-fish from the United States, indigo from Mexico, Paraguay herb from Paraguay, spices, quicksilver, &c. Timber for the construction of ships and houses is brought from Guayaquil. The official value of the different articles of British produce and manufacture exported to Peru in 1731, amounted to 624,639/., besides 21,3921. of foreign and colonial merchandise. The official value of the imports into Great Britain from Peru during the same year was 42,3771. Monies, Weights, and Measures, same as those of Spain; for which, see CADIZ. LIME (Ger. Kalk; Fr. Chaux; It. Calcina, Calce; Sp. Cal; Rus. Iswest), an earthy substance of a white colour, moderately hard, but which is easily reduced to powder, either by sprinkling it with water or by trituration. It has a hot burning taste, and in some measure corrodes and destroys the texture of those animal bodies to which it is applied. Specific gravity, 2.3. Calcium, the metallic basis of lime, was discovered by Sir H. Davy.

There are few parts of the world in which lime does not exist. It is found purest in limestone, marble, and chalk. None of these substances is, however, strictly speaking, lime; but they are all easily converted into it by a well-known process; that is, by placing them in kilns or furnaces constructed for the purpose, and keeping them for some time in a white heat,-a process called the burning of lime. (Thomson's Chemistry.)

The use of lime, as mortar in building, has prevailed from the earliest antiquity, and is nearly universal. It is also very extensively used in this country, and in an inferior degree in some parts of the Continent and of North America, as a manure to fertilise land. But it is a curious fact that the use of lime as a manure is entirely a European practice; and that its employment in that way has never been so much as dreamed of in any part of Asia or Africa. Lime is of much importance in the arts, as a flux in the smelting of metals, in the shape of chlorate in bleaching, in tanning, &c. Lime and limestones may be carried and landed coastwise without any customs document whatever. Its consumption in this country is very great.

LIME (Fr. Citronier; Ger. Citrone; Hind. Neemboo), a species of lemon (Citrus medica, var. C.), which grows in abundance in most of the West India islands, and is also to be met with in some parts of France, in Spain, Portugal, and throughout India, &c. The lime is smaller than the lemon, its rind is usually thinner, and its colour, when the fruit arrives at a perfect state of maturity, is a fine bright yellow. It is uncommonly juicy, and its flavour is esteemed superior to that of the lemon; it is, besides, more acid than the latter, and to a certain degree acrid.

LINEN (Ger. Linnen, Leinwand; Du. Lynwaat; Fr. Toile; It. Tela, Panno lino; Sp. Lienza, Tela de lino; Rus. Polotno), a species of cloth made of thread of flax or hemp. The linen manufacture has been prosecuted in England for a very long period; but though its progress has been considerable, particularly of late years, it has not been so great as might have been anticipated. This is partly, perhaps, to be ascribed to the efforts that have been made to bolster up and encourage the manufacture in Ireland and Scotland, and partly to the rapid growth of the cotton manufacture-fabrics of cotton having to a considerable extent supplanted those of linen.

In 1698, both houses of parliament addressed his Majesty (William III.), representing that the progress of the woollen manufacture of Ireland was such as to prejudice that of this country; and that it would be for the public advantage, were the former discouraged, and the linen manufacture established in its stead. His Majesty replied,-"I shall do all that in me lies to discourage the woollen manufacture in Ireland, and encourage the linen manufacture, and to promote the trade of England!" We may remark, by the way, that nothing can be more strikingly characteristic of the illiberal and erroneous notions that were then entertained with respect to the plainest principles of public economy, than this address and the answer to it. But whatever the people of Ireland might think of their sovereign deliberately avowing his determination to exert himself to crush a manufacture in which they had begun to make some progress, government had no difficulty in prevailing upon the legislature of that country to second their views, by prohibiting the exportation of all woollen goods from Ireland, except to England, where prohibitory duties were already laid on their importation! It is but justice, however, to the parliament and government of England, to state that they have never discovered any backwardness to promote the linen trade of Ireland; which, from the reign of William III. downwards, has been the object of regulation and

encouragement. It may, indeed, be doubted whether the regulations have been always the most judicious that might have been devised, and whether Ireland has really gained any thing by the forced extension of the manufacture. Mr. Young and Mr. Wakefield, two of the highest authorities as to all matters connected with Ireland, contend that the spread of the linen manufacture has not really been advantageous. And it seems to be sufficiently established, that though the manufacture might not have been so widely diffused, it would have been in a sounder and healthier state had it been less interfered with.

Bounties. Besides premiums and encouragements of various kinds, bounties were granted on the exportation of linen for a very long period down to 1830. In 1829, for example, notwithstanding it had been very much reduced, the bounty amounted to about 300,000l., or to nearly one seventh part of the entire real or declared value of the linen exported that year! It is not easy to imagine a greater abuse. A bounty of this sort, instead of promoting the manufacture, rendered those engaged in it comparatively indifferent to improvements; and though it had been otherwise, what is to be thought of the policy of persisting for more than a century in supplying the foreigner with linens for less than they cost? We have not the least doubt, that were the various sums expended in well-meant but useless attempts to force this manufacture, added together, with their accumulations at simple interest, they would be found sufficient to yield an annual revenue, little, if at all, inferior to the entire value of the linens we now send abroad. And after all, the business never began to do any real good, or to take firm root, till the manufacture ceased to be a domestic one, and was carried on principally in mills, and by the aid of machinery,—a change which the old forcing system tended to counteract. The only real and effectual legislative encouragement the manufacture has ever niet with, has been the reduction of the duties on flax and hemp, and the relinquishing of the absurd attempts to force their growth at home.

Exports of Linen from Ireland, &c.-The following Table, which we regret the parliamentary accounts do not furnish the means of continuing to the present day, gives

An Account of the Quantity and Value of the Linens exported from Ireland, from 1800 to 1829, both

Of these exports, more than 12-13ths have been to Great Britain. The total average export, during the 3 years ending with 1825, was 51,947,413 yards, of which 49,031,073 came to this country; the exports to all other parts being only 2,916,340. Since 1825, the trade between Ireland and Great Britain has been placed on the footing of a coasting trade, so that linens are exported and imported without any specific entry at the Custom-house.

Scotch Linen Manufacture.—In 1727, a Board of Trustees was established in Scotland for the superintendence and improvement of the linen manufacture. It is not easy to suppose that the institution of this Board could of itself have been of any material service; but considerable bounties and premiums being at the same time given on the production and exportation of linen, the manufacture went on increasing. Still, however, it did not increase so fast as cotton and some others, which have not received any adventitious support, until machinery began to be extensively employed in the manufacture; so that it is very doubtful whether the influence of the bounty has been so great as it would at first sight appear to have been. The regulations as to the manufacture, after having been long objected to by those concerned, were abolished in 1822; and the bounties have now ceased. We subjoin

Average Price per Yard.

An Account of the Quantity and Value of the Linen Cloth manufactured and stamped for Sale in ScotJand during the Ten Years ending with 1822, being the latest Period to which it can be made up.

This account is not, however, of much use. The stamp was only affixed to linen on which a bounty was paid, that is, on linen intended for exportation. Linen manufactured for home use, or intended for private sale, was not stamped.—(Headrick's Survey of Forfar, p. 506.)

Dundee is the grand seat of the Scotch linen manufacture; and its progress there during the last few years has been so extraordinary, that the following details in respect to it may not be unacceptable.

The manufacture appears to have been introduced into Dundee some time towards the beginning of last century; but, for a lengthened period, its progress was comparatively slow. In 1745, only 74 tons of flax were imported, without any hemp; the shipments of linen cloth during the same year being estimated at about 1,000,000 yards, no mention being made either of sail-cloth or bagging. In 1791, the imports of flax amounted to 2,444 tons, and those of hemp to 299 tons; the exports that year being 7,842,000 yards linen, 280,000 yards sail-cloth, and 65,000 do. bagging. From this period the trade began to extend itself gradually, though not rapidly. Previously to the peace of 1815, no great quantity of machinery was employed in spinning; but about this period, in consequence, partly and principally of the improvement of machinery, and its extensive introduction into the manufacture, and partly of the greater regularity with which supplies of the raw material were obtained from the Northern powers, the trade began rapidly to increase. Its progress has, indeed, been quite astonishing; the imports of flax having increased from about 3,000 tons in 1814, to 15,000 tons in 1830! The exports of manufactured goods have increased in a corresponding proportion. During the year ended the 31st of May, 1831, there were imported into Dundee 15,010 tons of flax, and 3,082 do. hemp; and there were shipped off 366,817 pieces, being about 50,000,000 yards, of linen; 85,522 pieces, or about 3,500,000 yards, of sail-cloth; and about 4,000,000 yards of bagging-in all, about 57,500,000 yards! (See an excellent article on this subject in the Dundee Chronicle, 16th of October, 1832.) In the year ending the 31st of May, 1833, the imports of flax amounted to 18,777 tons, besides 3,380 tons of hemp. The shipments of linen, sail-cloth, &c. have increased in a corresponding ratio; and were valued, in the year now mentioned, at about 1,600,000% It appears, therefore, that the shipments of linen from this single port are quite as great as those from all Ireland; and while the manufacture has been very slowly progressive in the latter, it has increased at Dundee even more rapidly than the cotton manufacture has increased at Manchester. It is not easy to give any satisfactory explanation of this wonderful progress. Something must be ascribed to the convenient situation of the port for obtaining supplies of the raw material; and more, perhaps, to the manufacture having been long established in the towns and villages of Strathmore, the Carse of Gowrie, and the northern parts of Fife, of which Dundee is the emporium. But these circumstances do not seem adequate to explain the superiority to which she has recently attained in this department; and, however unphilosophical it may seem, we do not really know that we can ascribe it to any thing else than a concurrence of fortunate accidents. Nothing, in fact, is so difficult to explain as the superiority to which certain towns frequently attain in particular departments of industry, without apparently possessing any peculiar facilities for carrying them on. But from whatever causes their pre-eminence may arise in the first instance, it is very difficult, when once they have attained it, for others to come into competition with them. They have, on their side, established connections, workmen of superior skill and dexterity in manipulation, improved machinery, &c. Recently, indeed, the advantages in favour of old establishments have been, to a considerable extent, neutralised by the prevalence of combinations amongst their workmen; but it is to be hoped that means may speedily be devised for obviating this formidable evil.

Value of the Manufacture. Number of Persons employed.-There are no means by which to form an accurate estimate of the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr. Colquhoun estimated it at 15,000,000/.; but there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that this is an absurd exaggeration. In the former edition of this work we expressed our conviction that it could not be valued at more than 10,000,000l.; but further investigation has satisfied us that even this estimate is very decidedly beyond the mark, and that the entire produce of the manufacture in the United Kingdom does not exceea 7,500,000/.* Some very intelligent individuals, largely engaged in the trade, do not esti

* Sir F. M. Eden estimated the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain, in 1800, at 2,000,000l.-(Treatise on Insurance, p. 76.)

mate it at so much; and we feel fully confident that this sum, if not much beyond, is at all events not within the mark. Now, if we set aside a third part of this sum for the value of the raw material, and 25 per cent. for profits, wages of superintendence, wear and tear of capital, coal, &c., we shall have 3,125,000l. to be divided as wages among those employed in the manufacture. And supposing each individual to earn, at an average, 181. a year, the total number employed would be about 172,000. It may be thought, perhaps, that 187. is too low an estimate for wages; and such, no doubt, would be the case, were not Ireland taken into the average. But as a great many persons are there employed in the manufacture at very low wages, we believe that 187. is not very far from the mean rate.*

Linen Trade of the United Kingdom.-The following official statements show, in detail, the state of the import and export trade of the country in this department, in 1830, with the results for the subsequent years.

Account of the Quantities of Hemp and Flax, dressed and undressed, Hemp Tow, Flax Tow, and Linen Yarns, imported into Great Britain and Ireland, from Foreign Parts, in the year ended the 5th of January, 1831; distinguishing the Ports of Importation, and the Countries whence imported, together with the Real and Official Values thereof.-(Parl. Paper, No. 534. Sess. 1832, &c.)

Imports into Great Britain and Ireland from Foreign Parts in the Year ended 5th of January, 1831.

* A vast number of persons in Ireland are only partly employed in the manufacture; but the above estimate supposes that the 172,000 individuals are wholly employed in it.