is commissioned to keep the peace and the laws and customs of Ireland, and to see that justice is impartially administered. He has the control of the police, and may issue orders to the general commanding the troops for the support of the civil authority, the protection of the public, the defense of the kingdom, and the suppression of insurrec tion: He may confer knighthood, and, previous to its disestablishment, had the disposal of church preferment, as well as all the other patronage of the country. The granting of money, and lands, and pensions, of all titles of honor except simple knighthood, the appointment of privy-councilors, judges, law officers, and governors of forts, and the appointment to military commissions, are reserved to the sovereign, acting, however, on the lord-lieutenant's advice and recommendation. No complaint of injustice or oppression in Ireland will be entertained by the sovereign until first made to the lordlieutenant, who is in no case required to execute the royal instructions in a matter of which he may disapprove until he can communicate with the sovereign and receive further orders. Yet, notwithstanding the dignity and responsibility of his office, the lord-lieutenant acts in every matter of importance under the direct control of the cabinet of Great Britain. The views and opinions of the cabinet on all the more important questions connected with his government are communicated to him by the home secretary, who is held responsible for the government of Ireland, and with whom it is the duty of the lord-lieutenant to be in close correspondence; on mattors of revenue he must be in constant communication with the treasury. On his occasional or temporary absence from Ireland, lords-justices are appointed, who are usually the lord primate, the lord chancellor, and the commander of the forces. His salary is £20,000, with a residence in Dublin castle as well as one in Phoenix Park. His tenure of office depends on that of the ministry, of which he is a member. By act 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, a Roman Catholic is ineligible for the lieutenancy of Ireland.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL, in the British army, is nominally the second officer in a regiment; but virtually a lieutenant-colonel commands every battalion of infantry and regiment of cavalry, the post of colonel being merely an honorable sinecure, with usually £1000 a year attached, awarded to a general officer. The lieutenant-colonel is responsible for the discipline of his battalion, the comfort of his men, and ultimately for every detail connected with their organization. He is aided by the major and adjutant. In the artillery and engineers, where the rank of colonel is a substantive rank, with tangible regimental duties, the functions of lieutenant-colonel are more limited, one having charge of every two batteries of artillery, or two companies of engineers. The pay of a lieutenant-colonel varies from £1 9s. 2. per diem in the household cavalry to 17s. in the infantry of the line. Five years' regimental service as lieutenant-colonel entitles an officer to brevet rank as colonel, which, while improving his position in the army, does not, however, affect his status in his regiment.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL (ante). That rank in the U. S. army next above major and next below colonel, and answering to that of commander in the navy.

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL. See GENERAL OFFICER.

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL (ante). In the U. S. army, the rank next beneath that of general; the latter, under the president, being commander-in-chief. It was first authorized by congress in 1798 and bestowed upon gen. Washington in view of the then anticipated war with France. After Washington's death the rank remained in abeyance until 1855, when it was revived (in brevet) by congress for gen. Winfield Scott, at whose death it again lapsed. In 1864 it was again revived by special act, and conferred on gen. U. S. Grant, on whose promotion by the creation of the grade of general in his behalf maj.gen. William T. Sherman became lieutenant-general; and, on his succession to the rank of general, maj.gen. Philip H. Sheridan was promoted to be lieutenant-general, and still (1880) holds that rank.

LIEVEN, DOROTHEA, Princess of, 1785-1857; b. Riga; daughter of Christoph von Benkendorff, an Esthonian of the middle class; was brilliantly educated, and when quite young was married to prince Christoph Lieven, Russian ambassador at the court of Prussia. Established in Berlin, she displayed remarkable diplomatic aptitude, while gaining an important social position through the exercise of fascinating personal qualities. Her correspondence became very extensive, and she soon enjoyed a continental reputation. On her husband's appointment to the court of St. James in 1812, she simply changed the immediate field of her influence and speedily established herself in a firm position in political and fashionable society in London. In 1834 the prince became governor of the czarovitch, Alexander II., and was greatly assisted in his important functions by the comprehensive capacity of his wife. In 1837 the princess removed her residence to Paris, and two years later her husband died in Rome, after which period she resided permanently in the French capital. Here she was universally sought after by the most important personages in diplomacy, and her saloon was the center of schemes and intrigues, having for their subjects the interests of half of Europe. She began to fail in health early in 1857, but retained her faculties to the last.

LIFE. In seeking a definition of life, it is difficult to find one that does not include more than is necessary, or exclude something that should be taken in. Richerand's definition of life, that it is "a collection of phenomena which succeed each other during

Life,

a limited time in an organized body," is equally applicable to the decay which goes on after death. According to De Blainville, “life is the twofold internal movement of composition and decomposition, at once general and continuous." As Mr. Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology well observes, this conception is in some respects too narrow, and in other respects too wide. Thus, it excludes those nervous and muscular functions which form the most conspicuous and distinctive classes of vital phenomena, while it equally applies to the processes going on in a living body and iù a galvanic battery. Mr. Spencer (in 1852) proposed to detine life as the "co-ordination of actions," but as he observes, "like the others, this definition includes too much, for it may be said of the solar system, with its regularly recurring movements and its self-balancing perturbations, that it also exhibits co-ordination of actions." His present and amended conception of life is: "The definite combination of heterogeneous changes, both simultaneous and successive, in correspondence with external co-existences and sequences." One of the latest definitions of life is that which has been suggested by Mr. G. H. Lewes: "Life is a series of definite and successive changes, both of structure and composition, which take place within an individual without destroying its identity." This is, perhaps, as good a definition as has yet been given; but no one of those we have quoted is more than approximately true, and a perfect definition of life seems to be an impossibility.

LIFE. See BIOLOGY.

LIFE, MEAN DURATION OF. By this term is meant the average length of life enjoyed by a given number of persons of the same age. Suppose we look at the Northampton table of mortality, we find that, of 3,635 persons aged 40, 3,559 reach 41, 3,482 reach 42, and so on, the whole failing at ninety-six. The average age, then, attained by the 3,635 persons being ascertained on these data would be the mean duration of life after the age of forty has been reached. Suppose, then, that a be the given number alive at a given age by a given mortality table, and b the number alive at the end of the first year, e the number alive at the end of the second, and so on; then there die at the end of the first year, a-b; and assuming that those who have died have, on an average, lived half a year, the aggregate length of life enjoyed by those who have died during the first year will be (a-b) years; then b being still alive, the a persons have enjoyed, at the end of the first year, (a−b) + b = ‡ (a+b) years. In the second year, the a persons enjoy ☀ (b+c); in the third, the c persons enjoy (c + d) years; and so on. Summing these, and dividing by the original number of lives, so as to ascertain the average, gives + b+c+d ; hence the rule: Add the numbers alive at each age above that given, divide by the number alive at the given age, and add half a year. The mean duration of life at a given age is often called the "expectation of life;" but this is clearly a wrong term Of 1000 lives at twenty, suppose 500 to reach forty-five; then a man aged twenty has an equal chance of reaching forty-five, and twenty-five years would be his expectation of life. But it clearly does not follow that taking the 500 who have not reached twenty-five, along with the 500 who have survived it, we should find, on extinction of the whole, that the mean duration was twenty-five years. It might be either greater or less. The term "expectation of life," as generally applied by assurance companies to denote mean duration, is, therefore, a wrong one. In connection with this subject, see MORTALITY; also MAN.

a

to use.

LIFE-ASSURANCE. See INSURANCE.

END OF VOLUME VIIL