Knobel.

implied that, whereas he was before only a member of his immediate family, he now became a servant, or cniht (Saxon), of the state. But both the institution and the ceremony have been traced back as far as the foundation of Rome, when Romulus is said to have created the rank, the curia electing 300 equites, as they were called, from equus, a horse. In England king Alfred is said to have been the first to create a knight with the sword of state, in the case of Athelstane, A.D. 900. In the time of Henry III. of England the institution seems to have been based on a property qualification, since all persons possessed of ten pounds yearly income were forced to be knighted under penalty of a fine. The institution of knighthood as an order was, generally speaking, an event of the middle ages, and grew out of the disturbed condition of society, and the necessity for the weak to be protected by the strong. The feudal barons were at this time mostly marauding robbers, whose hands were against all men, and who particularly devoted themselves to plundering their neighbors of their women and their wealth. The church being specially the object of their predatory excursions, that institution, with a view to the protection of its enormous and increasing riches, turned the warlike spirit of the age to its advantage, and, by introducing the religious element into the investiture of knighthood, brought to the ceremony a specific character of solemnity which created a tenacious bond of attachment between the two. With that keen shrewdness which has always characterized the Roman Catholic church, the latent spirit of respect for woman which existed in the middle ages, even among the rude and savage populations of central Europe, was made a powerful element in the foundation of the new order. The virgin Mary became the special tutelary divinity of knighthood, and by parity of reasoning, the sex was added to the church, in the esteem of the order, as being under its protection.

This deference to woman and the church became thereafter the chief impelling motive, under whose impulse the knights of the middle ages were incited to deeds requiring the greatest daring, self-denial, and tenacity of purpose. Not unnaturally, and particularly among the rash and the young, abuses crept into the system, and wild and foolish exploits brought the order into such disrepute that it became possible for Miguel Cervantes, at the close of the 16th c., to compose his wonderful burlesque of knighthood, the immortal Don Quixote, and for that work to meet with public acceptance. Yet it is to be remembered that in no other instance, save perhaps those of the Roman Catholic church and the masonic order, has any merely human institution survived so long and accomplished so much of material good to mankind-on a basis of purely abstract qualities. The institution of the later orders of knighthood was occasioned by a desire to construct a reputable system of recognition of merit. Some of these were distinctively charitable in their nature, others simply orders of merit. Of these the names of 240 have been preserved in history.

KNIGHT'S FEE. See KNIGHTS.

KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE, otherwise called in England knights of parliament. They were knights formerly chosen by the freeholders of every county to represent the county in parliament, and were originally inhabitants of the places for which they were chosen. See PARLIAMENT.

KNIGHT'S SERVICE, one of the ancient tenures in England (see KNIGHTS), which was abolished in the time of Charles II., and converted into freehold (q.v.).

KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. See TEMPLARS.

KNIPPERDOLling, BernarD, a noted leader of the fanatical Anabaptists of the 16th century. See ANABAPTISTS.

KNITTING, an art allied to weaving, but of comparatively modern date. The time and place of its invention are disputed Some historians insist upon Scotland having the honor, at a date somewhat before the year 1500; others assert that it came from Spain, in the time of Henry VIII.; but there is no proof that the silk stockings which were worn by that monarch were knitted, and in the absence of such proof the weight of evidence remains in favor of Scotland. Knitting consists in using a single thread, and with it forming a continual series of loops across the whole fabric; the next row passes through these, and they in their turn receive another set, until the whole is completed. Knitting is only employed to make small articles, such as stockings, gloves, etc.; and as it furnishes an easy and amusing employment for the hands, without engaging the attention much, it forms a useful and desirable occupation for ladies and others who do not require knitted articles as necessaries, for the knitting-machines have now rendered it impossible for hand-work to compete with them in point of economy or beauty of workmanship. See HOSIERY.

KNOBEL, KARL AUGUST, D.D., 1807-63; b. near Sorau, Silesia; an eminent German theologian and archeologist. He studied in Sorau under principal Scharbe. In 1831 ho began lecturing, and by his freshness and power drew numerous hearers. In 1837 he received from Breslau the degree of doctor in theology for his able work on prophecy, and soon after the offer of a professorship in Göttingen, in Ewald's place, and of one in Giessen, which he accepted. He was a learned rationalist, and published during his 24 years at Giessen numerous works, among which were Ecclesiastes and several commentaries.

Knowles.

KNOBELSDORFF, HANS GEORG WENZESLAUS VON, Baron, 1697-1753; b. Brandenburg, Prussia. After serving in the army he studied architecture, and in 1740 was appointed director of royal buildings in Prussia by Frederic II., who, when crownprince, had been his patron. He drew the plans for the Thiergarten and opera-house in Berlin, and for the famous Sans Souci palace at Potsdam.

KNOLLYS, HANSERD, 1598-1691; b. in Lincolnshire, England. He was educated at Cambridge university, and ordained a priest of the church of England, but, having changed his views of church government and of baptism, he was deposed for non-conformity, and compelled to flee to New England, where his stout attacks on infant baptism speedily involved him in controversy with the authorities. Cotton Mather nicknamed him "Mr. Absurd Knowless." He was the first minister at Dover, N. H., where he preached, 1638-41. In the latter year, after a short stay on Long island, he returned to London, where he died. He was an accomplished scholar, a fervent and powerful preacher, and a wise instructor of youth. Among his publications were a Hebrew grammar, and A Flaming Fire in Zion. His uncompleted autobiography was finished by another hand after his death. A "Hanserd Knollys society," formed in London in 1845, reprints early Baptist writings.

KNOT, a twist or loop in a rope or cord, so made that the motion of one piece of the line over the other shall be stopped. The knot owes its power of passive resistance to the friction of the rope. The uses of knots are infinite; in the commonest occasions of life one or two simple knots are indispensable; in building, mining, and almost every land occupation, knots of curious form are employed; while on shipboard, knots may be almost numbered by the dozen, and each is appropriated to a specific duty.

The simplest knot is the "overhand." Its use is to form a knob in a rope to stay it from slipping. By a slight alteration, the "single sling," or slip knot, is obtained, always in the middle of the rope. More complicated, but still more useful, is the "double sling." for suspending a beam or bar horizontally. The bow-line knot serves to give a tight grasp round a pole or beam, which would occupy the loop, or, drawn close on the rope, it forms a large knob, to prevent the rope passing a hole. The sheep-shank affords a means of shortening a rope temporarily, without diminishing its power of rectilineal tension. All the foregoing have been at the double or middle parts of the rope.

For modes of joining two ropes, the weaver's or fisherman's knot may be adduced as strong and neat. The sailor's knot has the advantage, when properly made, of resisting all separating strain on the two ropes, and at the same time of being loosened immediately by a pull at one of the short ends. For an interlacing of two doubled ropes, the "Carrick bend" has no superior; the point of junction cannot slip, and the moment the tension ceases, the two ropes are again free from each other. Knots have many technical names, such as bight, hitch, etc.

KNOT, an expression used in speaking of a ship's way through the water, and, as such, representing miles. The log line is divided by knots into lengths, each of which is to a geographical mile as half a minute is to an hour-i.e., as 1 to 120. The log being cast overboard, note is carefully taken of how many of these knots run out in a half minute, and it follows that the vessel is passing through the water at the same number of geographical miles per hour. The proportion of a geographical to a statute mile being nearly that of 7 to 6 (see MILE), a vessel making 12 knots an hour is in reality traveling at the rate of 14 statute miles.

KNOT (Tringa canutus), a bird of the family scolopacida, and of the same genus with the dunlin, stints, etc. It is sometimes called the RED SANDPIPER. Its whole length is about ten inches. The general color, in summer, is reddish-brown, finely mingled with black, gray, and white; in winter, the plumage becomes mostly ash-gray, and on the under parts white. The knot frequents high_northern latitudes in summer, and breeds there; but migrates southwards in winter, and is then found, sometimes in large flocks, in Europe, Asia, and America, as far south as the West Indies, chiefly on flat sandy shores. It runs about with great activity as the wave retires, seeking its food on the sands. Its food consists in great part of small bivalve mollusks, which it swallows shell and all. It is in high esteem for the table.

KNOT-GRASS. See POLYGONUM.

KNOTS of different kinds are borne by different families as heraldic badges, and are occasionally introduced as charges in shields. The forms of some of them appear to be suggested by the initial letter of the name or title of the bearer. In the Wake and Ormonde knot it is not difficult to trace a Wand two Os. The Bourchier knot, as seen on the tomb of archbishop Bourchier, at Canterbury, bears a resemblance to two Bs, and the Stafford knot to two Ss. The Lacy knot contains within it a rebus on the four letters of the name Lacy.

KNOTT, J. PROCTOR, b. Ky., 1830. After studying law he removed to Missouri in 1850, and ten years afterwards was attorney-general of that state. In 1862 he returned to Kentucky, and was elected to congress by the democratic party in 1866, 1868, and 1870, and from 1874 to 1880 inclusive. He earned notoriety by several humorous speeches, especially by one in which he ridiculed the town of Duluth, Minn., which

at that time was just rising into importance and demanding large appropriations from the governinent.

KNOWLES, JAMES DAVIS, 1798–1838; b. Providence, R. I.; graduated at Columbian college, D. C., in 1824. In 1825 he became pastor of the Second Baptist church in Boston, where he remained until 1832, when he accepted an appointment as professor of sacred rhetoric in the Newton (Mass.) theological institute. He published memoirs of the first Mrs. Adoniram Judson (Ann Hasseltine), missionary to Burmah, India, and of Roger Williams, and was for some time editor of the Christian Review.

KNOUT, properly knut, a scourge composed of many thongs of skin, plaited, and interwoven with wire, which was formerly the favorite instrument of punishment in Russia for all classes and degrees of criminals. The offender was tied to two stakes, stripped, and received on the back the specified number of lashes; 100 or 120 were equivalent to sentence of death, but in many cases the victim died under the operation long before this number was completed. If a culprit survived this punishment he was banished for life to Siberia. The whipping was inflicted by a criminal, who preferred this office to exile to Siberia, and who was constantly kept in prison, except when his services were required. The nobility were legally exempt from the knout, but this privilege was not always respected. În earlier times the nose was slit, the ears were cut off, and the letter V for vor (rogue) was branded on the forehead; but this aggravation was abolished by Alexander I. The knout was abolished by the emperor Nicholas, who substituted the pleti, a kind of lash.

KNOWLEDGE. This term of common use is associated with the greatest problems and controversies of philosophy. The perception of the external or material world (see COMMON SENSE; PERCEPTION), the nature of belief (see BELIEF), the ultimate analysis of a proposition or judgment (see JUDGMENT), are all involved in the discussion of what is meant by knowledge. Moreover, we may, in connection with this word, take up the consideration of thought or intelligence on the whole, in contrast to the feelings and volitions (see INTELLECT). In a still different phase of meaning, we may be led to consider the nature of science or philosophy, which is a species of knowledge distinguished by the two features of being generalized, as distinct from individual or particular facts, and being verified or attested by careful evidence, in contrast to the loose assertions that satisfy the ordinary run of mankind.

A distinction, considered by sir W. Hamilton and others to be of great importance in metaphysical philosophy, is that of immediate or presentative, and mediate or representative knowledge. The one is the knowledge or cognizance that we have of the modifications of our own minds, so to speak, without inferring anything beyond, as in our various sensations and emotions. When we are affected by cold or heat, hunger, thirst, odor, or sound, we are conscious of a something, which may be said to be wholly contained in our own minds; but when a present modification of the mind is looked upon not for its own sake, but as bodying forth something more than itself, as in memory, our knowledge is then said to be mediate. Thus, an actual sensation is immediate, but a recollection, or idea, or imagination is mediate and representative. Mr. Mansel makes this distinction the basis of his division of the mind. Consciousness," he says, "in its relation to the person conscious, is of two kinds; or rather, is composed of two elements-the presentative, or intuitive, and the representative, or reflective. The phenomena of the former class may be distinguished by the general name of intuitions; those of the latter, by that of thoughts."

It will appear from the above remarks that there is no question connected with knowledge that does not fall to be discussed under some other head; and as a general rule, it is best to take up the difficult problems of the philosophy of mind under those names that severally suggest each in its singleness, instead of confusing a multitude together.

KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN, an English dramatist, was the son of James Knowles, an eminent teacher of elocution, and author of a Dictionary of the English Language. He was born at Cork in 1784. The family removed to London in 1792, and here young Knowles received his education. After holding for some time a commission in the army, he became an actor, and made his first appearance at the Crow Street theater, Dublin; but he never attained much eminence in this profession. Subsequently, he lived for several years in Belfast and Glasgow, as a teacher of elocution, and it was at this time he laid the foundation of his fame as a dramatist. His Caius Gracchus was first performed at Belfast in 1815. It was followed by Virginius, his most effective piece, afterwards recast for the London stage, where Macready took the principal part. He wrote thirteen other plays, but none of his productions exhibit great genius; they are, however, unquestionably the best "acting plays" produced by an Englishman in modern times. About the year 1845 he relinquished the stage from religious scruples, and in 1852 joined the Baptist body. He latterly distinguished himself by his religious zeal. In 1851 he published a little controversial work, displaying considerable acuteness, The Idol Demolished by its own Priest, in answer to cardinal Wiseman's lectures on transubstantiation. Knowles died at Torquay in 1862. A publication of his Lectures on Dramatic Literature began in 1876.

KNOWLTO'NIA, a genus of south African plants, of the natural order ranunculaceœ, with flowers resembling those of Adonis, and succulent fruit. K. vesicatoria, which has bi-ternate leathery leaves, and flowers in few-flowered umbels, is remarkable for its acridity and blistering power. The bruised leaves are used at the cape of Good Hope instead of cantharides; they raise a blister in half an hour, and it keeps open a long time. The sliced root seems to be still more powerful.

KNOW NOTHINGS, a secret political society, organized in the United States in 1853, which rapidly gained the ascendency in several states, and then as rapidly declined. Its principles and objects as set forth in a convention of the party in New York in 1855, were as follows: The Americans shall rule America; the union of these states; no north, no south, no east, no west; the United States of America, as they are, one and inseparable; no sectarian interferences in our legislation, or in the administration of American law; hostility to the assumption of the pope, through the bishops, etc., in a republic sanctified by Protestant blood; thorough reform in the naturalization laws (requiring 21 years' residence of all foreigners previous to voting); free and liberal educational institutions for all sorts and classes, with the Bible, God's holy word, as a universal text-book." Strenuous efforts were made, by means of the new excitement created by this society, to supersede the antislavery agitation, which was then rapidly increasing; but in 1856 the latter swallowed up the former, and the larger portion of the know-nothings united with the republicans in nominating John C. Fremont for president, a minority presenting Millard Fillmore as their candidate. This division was fatal to the organization, which soon afterwards fell to pieces and has never been renewed. In 1855 a society called "know-somethings" was formed to oppose the one herein described, but it shared the fate of the earlier association.

KNOX, a co. in n. w. Illinois; 720 sq.m.; pop. '70, 39,522. It contains considerable deposits of coal, and has a fertile soil. Agriculture is the chief occupation, but there is much manufacturing of carriages, saddlery, brick, and hardware. The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad passes through. Co. seat, Galesburg.

KNOX, a co. in s.w. Indiana, bordering on Illinois; 513 sq.m.; pop. 270, 21,562. Agriculture is the principal pursuit. The surface is level and fertile. Co. seat, Vincennes.

KNOX, a co. in s.e. Kentucky, on both sides of the Cumberland river; 340 sq.m.: pop. '80, 10,587. It is mountainous, with deposits of iron, coal, and salt. The chief products, besides live stock, are corn, oats, wheat, and potatoes. Co. seat, Barboursville.

KNOX, a co. in s. Maine, bounded e. by Penobscot bay, s. by the Atlantic; intersected by the Medomac river, and comprises several islands; 330 sq.m.; pop. '80, 32,862. The surface is uneven, the soil fertile. The staples are potatoes, hay, and butter. A part of the population are engaged in navigation and the fisheries. The county has extensive quarries of limestone, and much lime is exported. There are numerous manufactories for carriages, saddlery, and woolen goods; many tanneries and flour and saw mills. The Knox and Lincoln railroad connects Bath with Rockland, the co. seat.

KNOX, a co. in n.e. Missouri; traversed by the Quincy, Missouri and Pacific railroad; 504 sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,047. The surface is nearly level, with considerable timber. The soil is very fertile, and much wool, tobacco, and grain are raised. Brick and carriages are made. Co. seat, Edina.

KNOX (formerly L'Eau qui Court), a co. in n.e. Nebraska, on the Missouri and Niobrara rivers; 1000 sq.m.; pop. '80, 3,666. The soil is adapted to grazing and raising of grain.

KNOX, a co. in central Ohio, drained by the Vernon, Walhonding and north fork of the Licking rivers; traversed by the Lake Erie division of the Baltimore and Chio railroad, and connected with Cleveland by the Cleveland, Mt. Vernon and Columbus railroad: 530 sq.m.; pop. '80, 27,450. It has an undulating surface and fertile soil.

The

chief products are wheat, oats, maize, potatoes, tobacco, wool, butter, and pork. A large quantity of maple-sugar is made. There are numerous factories for carriages, sash. blinds and doors, tin, copper and sheet-iron ware, and woolen goods; also tanneries and flour and saw mills. Co. seat, Mount Vernon.

KNOX, a co. in e. Tennessee; traversed by the Holston river, whose valley is exceedingly fertile; 575 sq.m.; pop. '70, 28,890. The surface is diversified by several mountain ridges; and iron and marble abound. The raising of cattle is an important industry, and grain, wool, and tobacco are largely produced. It is intersected by the railroads which run into Knoxville. Co. seat, Knoxville.

KNOX, a co. in n. Texas, about the Brazes river; 1275 sq. miles. It contains extensive coal deposits. The surface is uneven, with some prairie. It is as yet unsettled.

KNOX, HENRY, 1750-1806; b. Boston, where he was engaged in business as a bookseller up to the outbreak of the revolutionary war. He was present at the battle of Bunker Hill as an aid to gen. Artemas Ward, and soon afterwards joined a regiment of artillery. He was soon placed in charge of artillery in New York, upon whose evacuation he took part in the campaign in New Jersey, where by his skillful handling of the artillery he prevented Cornwallis from passing the Assumpink river, and the next day, Jan. 3, 1777, he took part in the engagement at Princeton. He was promoted to a brig

adier-generalship, and took a prominent part in the battles at Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth, and at the siege of Yorktown. He was made a maj.gen., and after hostilities had ceased he superintended the disbandment of the army. He was secretary of war (which office included at that time the supervision of the navy) from 1785 to Dec., 1794. Upon his retirement from office he settled on his estates in Maine.

KNOX, JOHN, the great Scottish reformer, was b. in the year 1505, in a suburb. of Haddington called Gifford Gate, where a small field still goes by the name of “Knox's Croft." The social position of his parents is not very clearly ascertained. His own statement is that "his great-grandfather, gudesehir, and father served under the earls of Fothwell." He is supposed to have come of an old and respectable family, the Knoxes of Ranfurly, in Renfrewshire. He received his early education at the grammar-school of Haddington, and in the year 1521 went to the university of Glasgow. He was there a pupil under Major, and soon proved himself an apt and distinguished disputant in the scholastic theology. He was considered as likely to rival his master in the subtleties of the dialectic art. From the same teacher he no doubt derived his first impulse to that freedom of political opinion and independence of thought that afterwards characterized him. He is said to have been ordained before the year 1530, about which time, or shortly afterwards, he went to St. Andrews and began to teach there. There is, however, at this stage of his life a gap of 12 years, or nearly so, which the most careful research has hitherto failed to fill up. His attachment to the Romish church is supposed to have been shaken chiefly by the study of the fathers, about 1535; but he did not openly profess himself a Protestant till about 1543. He was degraded from his orders, and being even in danger of assassination, took refuge with Douglas of Longniddry, and there remained till the end of 1545.

Cardinal Beaton was at this time in the height of his power; after seizing George Wishart at Ormiston he had him brought to St. Andrews, and burned there, in front of his castle, Mar., 1546. Knox first clearly appears upon the scene of the reformation as the companion of Wishart. While the latter prosecuted his career as a preacher in Lothian, Knox waited upon him, bearing before him, he tells us, a "twa-handed sword." He already coveted the post of danger, and, full of enthusiasm, was ready to defend his zealous friend at the peril of his own life. After Wishart's seizure and death he withdrew for awhile again into retirement. He would fain have clung to the martyr, and shared his fate, but the latter would not have it so. Nay," he said: "return to your bairnes, and God bless you: ane is sufficient for a sacrifice." Knox's "bairnes" were his pupils, the sons of the lairds of Longniddry and Ormiston. He continued in charge of them for some years, till the great event which ere long followed the martyrdom of Wishart opened up a more prominent career for him. On the morning of May 29, 1546, cardinal Beaton was murdered in his castle, from the windows of which he had contemplated the sufferings of the martyr. Taken possession of by the band of nobles and others who had successfully accomplished so audacious a design, the castle at St. Andrews became the temporary stronghold of the reforming interest. Knox took refuge in it with his two pupils. Here his great gifts as a preacher were first discovered; and having found the secret of his influence the parish church of St. Andrews soon resounded with his indignant voice, denouncing the errors of popery. His career at this time, however, was soon cut short by the surrender of the fortress, and his imprisonment in the French galleys.

For two years he remained a prisoner, and underwent, in the course of this time, many privations. He was then liberated and allowed to depart to England, where he resided for four years, from 1549 to the beginning of 1554, a time of great and fruitful activity to him. He was appointed one of Edwards VI.'s chaplains, and lived on terms of intimate intercourse with Cranmer and others of the English reformers. He is supposed to have had considerable influence on the course of the English reformation, especially in regard to the liberal changes introduced into the service and prayer book of the church of England in the close of Edward's reign. He was much engaged in preaching, especially in the north, in Newcastle and Berwick; and at the latter place he fell in love and married.

The accession of Mary drove him and others to the continent. He was reluctant to flee, but partly by advice and partly by tears" he was compelled to consult his safety. He settled temporarily at Dieppe, whence we hear of him writing an Admonition to the Professors of God's Faith in England. He then went into Switzerland, and, returning, settled for some time at Frankfort-on-the-Main, where he is notable in connection with what are known as the "Frankfort troubles," certain disputes as to the use of king Edward's service-book in the congregation of English Protestants there. Towards the end of 1555 he made a rapid visit to Scotland, where he did much to encourage the cause of the reformation. Convinced, however, that the "time of deliverance" was not yet come for his country, he retired once more to Geneva, where he settled as pastor of a congregation for nearly three years, which were among the quietest, and probably the happiest years of his life.

Recalled to Scotland in May. 1559, he then entered upon his triumphant course as a reformer. Political necessities had driven the queen-regent to temporize with the "lords of the congregation," or the reforming nobles. Having somewhat re-established