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JINN, supernatural characters occurring in the Arabian mythology, and supposed to be the children of tire. They were said to be under the government of a race of kings named Suleyman, to one of whom was ascribed the honor of having built the pyramids. There were both good and evil jinns, the one class hideously ugly in appearance, the other beautiful. They were supposed to have the power of manifesting themselves to human beings in the form of serpents, dogs, or other creatures, or of appearing in the guise of human beings, or of becoming invisible at pleasure.

JIONPOOR, or JOANPORE, a district of Hindustan, in the North-West Provinces, between 26 and 27° n. lat.; bounded n. by Oude, n.e. by Azimghur, e. by Ghazeepoor, s. by Benares and Allahabad; 1552 sq.m.; pop. 798,503. It is well watered, extremely fertile, under good cultivation, and covered with forests. The inhabitants are Hindus and Mohammedans, the former greatly preponderating. With one tribe of the Hindus female infanticide prevailed until abolished by the influence of the British government. The district came into the possession of the British in 1775, and forms part of the Benares zemindary.

JIONPOOR, or JOANPORE, a t. in a district of the same name in the North-West Provinces of Hindustan. It was anciently the capital of an independent principality. It is on the river Goomty, 42 m. from Benares, 147 m. from Lucknow. Sultan Feroz III. of Delhi, having ordered a Hindu temple to be demolished, erected in 1370 around its ruins a fort of solid stone, which he named after his uncle and predecessor Joana. He sent numerous artificers and others to inhabit the new city, which was completed in twelve years. Khuaje Jehan, who became emperor after the subversion of the empire of Delhi by Tamerlane, made Jionpoor the capital. He was succeeded in 1399 by his son Moharic Shah, who in a prosperous reign of 40 years greatly strengthened and improved the city and fortress, and Jionpoor became one of the most renowned cities of Hindustan for religion and learning. It was again annexed to the empire of Delhi in 1468. Many of the mosques and colleges built at that time still exist. The fortress was often taken in the wars between the Afghans and Moguls, and much dilapidated, but was thoroughly repaired about 1570 by the governor of Bengal. The famous bridge of Jionpoor, built 280 years ago, still stands, a monument of ancient splendor and architectural skill. In 1793 it was submerged during the rainy season without any damage from the current, The town around the fort has some brick houses and a large bazaar. Many ruins of tombs and mosques are found in the vicinity of the city. The Jamai Musjed is a very handsome mosque built of stone, and is in good condition.

JITOMIR', chief t. of the government of Volhynia, in European Russia, is situated on the river Teterev, an affluent of the Dnieper, in lat. 50° 15′ n., long. 28° 40′ e. Pop. '67, 37,640. Its foundation is traced back as far as the 10th c., and it was at one time an important stronghold against the invasions of the Cossacks. In 1648 it was

nearly destroyed by the Cossack chief Khmelnitzky. In 1778 it was annexed to the Russian empire. The town carries on a trade in leather, wax, honey, and tallow, has two annual fairs, carries on iron and glass works, and extensive cloth manufactures. JOAB, a nephew of king David, was a distinguished warrior in the days of Saul. David gave him command of his entire army. He was an utterly unscrupulous general, and when David tried to remove him from his position in favor of Amasa, he plunged his sword into the heart of the latter in the very act of embracing him. He joined Adonijah in his conspiracy, and was at last taken by Solomon, although he had sought refuge at the altar in the tabernacle, and was put to death.

JOACHIM, JOSEPH, an eminent Hungarian violinist, was b. in the neighborhood of Presburg in 1831, received his early instruction at Pesth under Szervawinsky, director of the orchestra at the theater there, and made his début in public at the age of seven. He afterwards became the pupil of Böhm at Vienna, and at Leipsic studied counter. point under Hauptmann, and made the friendship of Mendelssohn. His first appearance in London was in 1844, when, though only in his 14th year, he was at once allowed to be one of the most distinguished of contemporary violinists. His performances at Vienna, Pesth, Paris, and London have since established for him the position of the first violinist of the day. In power and brilliancy of execution, and all the mechanical qualities of playing, he is little, if at all, behind Paganini. His works, which include overtures, Hebrew melodies and other songs, and compositions for the violin, are pervaded by the same tenderness and depth of musical feeling that characterize his playing. In 1869 Joachim became a member of the senate of the Berlin academy, and was appointed a director in the conservatory of music there. In 1877 Joachim received the degree of Mus. Doc. from the university of Oxford.

JOACHIM, THE PROPHET, 1130-1202; Abbot of Floris; b. Celico, Italy; a Cistercian monk, founder of the monastery of Floris. He was held in high repute even by popes and princes. His followers reverenced him as a prophet. He denounced severely the corruption of the Roman hierarchy, and sought to effect a reformation. Some of his views were peculiar. He taught that the Christian era would close in 1260, followed by a new era under another dispensation. His treatise called the Everlasting Gospel, in which he advocated this tenet, was condemned by the Lateran council in 1215, and again by the council of Arles in 1260, which pronounced all his followers heretics. In

Joush.

the middle of the 13th c. he had many adherents cailed Joachimites. He wrote many works, predicting in some of them the downfall of the papacy. His life was written by Gregory di Lauro.

JO ACHIMSTHAL, a t. of Bohemia, near the frontier of Saxony, 69 m. w.n.w. from Prague. It is situated in a valley, on the Weseritz, a feeder of the Eger, which itself flows into the Elbe, near the eastern opening of a remarkable gorge or pass among the lofty Erzgebirge, and at an elevation of 2,366 ft. above the sea. The town has a strange antique appearance, and the Rathhaus is a very remarkable building. Joachimsthal was formerly of greater importance than now, owing to its mines of silver, which are still wrought, but are not so productive as they once were. The produce of the silver mines of Joachimsthal in the 16th c. was, at an average, 21,897 marks. For about a century before 1852 the average produce was only 3,181 marks; and from 1852 to 1862 it was 3,232 marks. Silver mines have been wrought at Joachimsthal from a very remote period; one mine is 300 fathoms deep. The whole number of miners employed at Joachimsthal in the 16th c. was about 12.000, with 400 overseers and other officials, and 800 surveyors. Besides the silver obtained from the mines of this neighborhood it produces also lead, tin, and iron to a considerable amount. Joachimsthal is the seat of offices and courts of mines. Dollars (thalers) were first coined here, and hence their name (see DOLLAR). Goiter and cretinism are lamentably prevalent at Joachimsthal. Much coarse lace is made in the surrounding mountainous district. Pop. '69, 6,586.

JOAN, POPE, the name of a supposed female occupant of the papal chair in the 9th century. The popular story represents this singular personage as of English parentage; but, educated at Cologne, Rome, and ultimately Athens, in all which places in the assumed character of a man, and under the name of Joannes Anglicus, “John of England," she is alleged to have attained great distinction as a scholar. The narrative adds that having come in the end to Rome, she had ability and adroitness enough to carry the deception so far as to obtain holy orders, and to rise through various gradations to the papal sovereignty itself; but that being nevertheless of immoral life, the fraud was at length discovered, to the infinite scandal of the church, by her becoming pregnant, and being seized with the pains of childbirth on occasion of a public procession. The story had obtained currency, certainly in the latter part of the 13th century. It was inserted, though discredited, by Platina in his Lives of the Popes, but the statement does not appear to have been much discussed until the 16th c., when the commentator of Platina, Panvinius, inserted a note in refutation of it. Later Roman Catholic historiaus of course have published replies to the objections against the papal succession which their adversaries drew from the story of the female pope; but it is curious that the most complete and elaborate investigation of the question was that of a Calvinist divine, Blondel, who demonstrated the historical groundlessness of the story. He was followed on the same side by Leibnitz; and although attempts have been made from time to time by a few writers to maintain the tale, it has been all but universally disdarded, its latest patron being prof. Kist of Leyden, who, but a few years since, devoted an elaborate essay, Verhandeling over de Pausin Joanna, to the subject. A few words will suffice to explain the state of the historical evidence. The place assigned to the supposed papess is between the historical popes Leo IV. and Benedict III, the latter of whom died Mar. 10, 858. It is alleged that the Joan of the story occupied the papal chair for two years and five months. Now, according to all the chroniclers, with the doubtful exception of Marianus Scotus, Leo IV. did not die till July 10, 855, so that the interval between his death and that of Nicholas I., the successor of Benedict III., would be entirely filled up by the two years and five months of the papess, and no room would be left for the undoubted pontificate (of two and a half years) of Benedict III. Further, Hincmar of Rheims, a contemporary, in his 26th letter to Nicholas I., states that Benedict III. succeeded Leo IV. immediately. It is proved, moreover, by the unquestionable evidence of a diploma still preserved, and of a contemporary coin which Garampi has published, that Benedict III. was actually reigning before the death of the emperor Lothaire, which occurred towards the close of 855. The earliest authorities for the story of pope Joan, not reckoning a more than doubtful MS. of Marianus Scotus, are Martinus Polonus, a writer of the latter part of the 12th c., and a writer named Stephen de Bourbon, who wrote about 1225.-See Gieseler's Kirchengeschichte, th. ii. b. ii. s. 5; Weusing's Over de Pausin Johanna (Hague, 1845); Döllinger's Papstfabeln des Mittelal ters (Munich, 1863); and Bianchi Giovini's Esame Critico degli atti relativi alla Papessa Giovanna (Milan, 1845).

JO'ANES, VICENTE, 1523-1579; b. Spain: studied in Rome and settled in Valencia, where he founded a new school of painters. He was one of the most distinguished Spanish painters of his time. His subjects were exclusively religious, and many of his works are in the churches and convents of Valencia. His great pieces are "Baptism of Christ,' in the cathedral of Valencia; 6 pictures of the Life of St. Stephen," in the palace of Madrid; and the "Holy Supper," in the Louvre.

JOANNA I., 1327-1382; Queen of Naples: daughter of Charles, duke of Calabria, and granddaughter of Robert of Anjou; was married in 1334 to her second cousin, Andrew of Hungary, who in 1345 was murdered by conspirators instigated, as was believed, by Joanna. His brother, Louis the great of Hungary, invaded Naples to avenge his death,

and she fled to Avignon, the residence of the popes; but on the mediation of the pope she was restored to the throne in 1352. In the schism between the popes Clement VII. and Urban VI. she took sides with Clement, when, at the instigation of Urban, a rebellion occurred in Naples; she was captured by Charles Durazzo, imprisoned, and delivered to the king of Hungary, who had her put to death in 1382.

JOANNA II., 1370-1435; Queen of Naples, 1414-1435; a grandniece of Joanna I.; was married to William of Austria, and afterwards to Jacques de Bourbon count of La Marche. Her character was very dissolute, and her government disturbed by constant feuds and insurrections.

JOANNES, ISLAND OF. See MARAJO, ante.

JOAN OF ARC (Fr. JEANNE D'ARC), the MAID OF ORLEANS, was the daughter of respectable peasants, and was b. in 1412, in the village of Domremy, in the department of Vosges, France. She was taught, like other young women of her station in that age, to sew and to spin, but not to read and write. She was distinguished from other girls by her greater simplicity, modesty, industry, and piety. When about thirteen years of age she believed that she saw a flash of light, and heard an unearthly voice, which enjoined her to be modest, and to be diligent in her religious duties. The impression made upon her excitable mind by the national distresses of the time soon gave a new character to the revelations which she supposed herself to receive, and when fifteen years old she imagined that unearthly voices called her to go and fight for the dauphin. Her story was at first rejected, as that of an insane person; but she not only succeeded in making her way to the dauphin, but in persuading him of her heavenly mission. She assumed male attire and warlike equipments, and with a sword and a white banner she put herself at the head of the French troops, whom her example and the notion of her heavenly mission inspired with new enthusiasm. On April 29, 1429, she threw herself, with supplies of provisions, into Orleans, then closely besieged by the English, and from the 4th to the 8th of May made successful sallies upon the English, which resulted in their being compelled to raise the siege. After this important victory the national ardor of the French was rekindled to the utmost, and Joan became the dread of the previously triumphant English. She conducted the dauphin to Rheims, where he was crowned, July 17, 1429, and Joan, with many tears, saluted him as king. She now wished to return home, deeming her mission accomplished; but Charles importuned her to remain with his army, to which she consented. Now, however, because she no longer heard any unearthly voice, she began to have fearful forebodings. She continued to accompany the French army, and was present in many conflicts, till, on May 24, 1430, she threw herself, with a few troops, into Compiègne, which the Burgundian forces besieged; and being driven back by them in a sally, was taken prisoner and sold by the Burgundian officer to the English for a sum of 16,000 francs. Being conveyed to Rouen, the head-quarters of the English, she was brought before the spiritual tribunal of the bishop of Beauvais as a sorceress and heretic; and after a long trial, accompanied with many shameful circumstances, she was condemned to be burned to death. She recanted her alleged errors at the stake, and expressed penitence, in the hope of having her punishment commuted into perpetual imprisonment. But this did not accord with the views of those in whose power she now was. Words which fell from her when subjected to great indignities, and her resumption of male attire when all articles of female dress were carefully removed from her, were made grounds of concluding that she had relapsed, and she was again brought to the stake, on May 30, 1431, and burned. Her family, who had been ennobled upon her account, obtained, in 1440, a revisal of her trial; and in 1456 she was formally pronounced to have been innocent.

Few facts in history seem better authenticated than the death of "the Maid" at Rouen in 1431, and yet grave doubts have been raised on the point. There was a popular belief at the time that some one had been executed in the place of Joan; and many pretended Maids appeared, who, however, were punished as impostors. But a father Vignier, in the 17th c., found among the archives of Metz a paper purporting to be written at the time, and giving an account of the arrival at Metz, on May 20, 1436, of the Maid Jeanne, who was at once recognized by her two brothers, and was subsequently married to a Sieur de Hermoise. Vignier afterwards found in the family munimentchest of a M. des Armoise, in Lorraine, a contract of marriage between "Robert des Armoise, Knight, with Jeanne D'Arcy, surnamed the Maid of Orleans." In addition to this there was found, in 1740, among the archives of the Maison de Ville of Orleans, under the dates 1435-36, a record of certain payments to a messenger bringing letters from Jeanne the Maid, and also to her brother John du Lils or Lys. (De Lys was the name by which the family of D'Arc was ennobled.) A subsequent entry, Aug. 1, 1439, records a gift on the part of the council of the city for services rendered by her at the siege. See Quicherat's Condamnation et Réhabilitation de Jeanne d'Arc (1850); Delepierre's Doute Historique (1855): Wallon's Jeanne d'Arc (1867); Molandon's Première Expédition de Jeanne d'Arc (1874).

JO'ASH, or JEHO'ASH, King of Israel, son and successor of Jehoahaz and grandson of Jehu, reigned B.C. 838-823. He was a courageous and strong king, but adhered to the idolatry that had been introduced by Jeroboam.

U. K. VIII.—21

JO'ASH, or JEHO'ASH, about B.C. 884-837; King of Judah, son of Ahaziah and Libnah of Beersheba. On the death of his father, his grandmother Athaliah having massacred his brothers and usurped the throne, he was secreted by his aunt Jehoshebath, the wife of Jehoiada the high-priest, and brought up by her in the chambers connected with the temple until his 8th year, when in a revolution Athaliah was slain, and Joash placed upon the throne. For several years, through the influence of the high-priest, he adhered to the worship of the true God; but after the death of Jehoiada, falling into idolatry, his kingdom was devastated by Hazael of Damascus, he was besieged in Jerusalem, and afterwards murdered in his bed by his servants, after a reign of forty years.

JOB [Heb. Jyob, derived by Gesenius from ayab, “to be an adversary;" hence (passive) one who has an adversary," or "a persecuted one"]. the leading personage in one of the canonical books of the Old Testament, which is called after him. He is said to have lived in the land of Uz (Sept. Ausitis, cf. Ptol. v. 19. 2), a locality somewhere between Idumea, Palestine, and the Euphrates. Whether Job was a real or a fictitious personage has been discussed with superfluous animation by critics. The Talmud (Baba Bathra, xv. 1) holds that "Jjob never was, and never was created, but is an allegory." The belief of most scholars at present is that the book of Job is a great dramatic poem, built on a basis of historical tradition. Job is a real person in precisely the same sense as the Hamlet of Shakespeare is a real person; i.e., for each there is a certuin genuine groundwork of antique fact; but some of the incidents, together with the sentiments and speeches recorded, are purely imaginative. Who was the author, and when he lived, cannot be, or at any rate has not been, determined with exactitude. Some critics make him anterior to Moses; the LXX. identifies him with Jobab, king of Edom" (postscr. to Job); others, among whom are many of the Talmudical authori ties, regard Moses himself as the author. The Mosaic period is claimed for it by Saadia, many of the church fathers, Michaelis, Jahn, Hufnagel, etc. A nearer approximation 10 what would seem to be the truth is the view held by Gregory Nazianzen, Luther, Döderlein, and others, who assign the work-which shows a certain affinity with the proverbs-to the age of Solomon, when Hebrew poetry was in its full bloom, and a broad catholic spirit pervaded the nation; some have even given Solomon himself the credit of its composition. The reference to the gold of Ophir seems at least conclusive against any hypothesis that would place its composition earlier; and while certain passages in Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Isaiah, Amos, which point to an acquaintance with it, go far to prove its comparatively early existence, Rénan, a recent French critic, considers that it belongs to the first half of the 8th c. B.C.; Ewald pronounces for a later period, and assigns the poem to the beginuing of the 7th century. This date is also advocated by Dr. Samuel Davidson in his Introduction to the Old Testament (Lond, 1862). Others, again-among whom Clericus, Grotius, Gesenius, Umbreit, Knobel, De Wette, etc.place it in the period of the exile; Hartmann, Vatke, Refer, and others, in the 5th Christian century.

The earlier German scholars, Herder, Eichhorn, etc., looked upon the author as an Edomite-not a Hebrew at all; but this view is now generally, if not entirely, abandoned. The poem is a genuine product of the Hebrew muse, not, however, standing on narrow national ground-the very scene being laid in a foreign country-but on the broad ground of a universal humanity: it is the attempt of a Hebrew thinker, of enlarged mind, to vindicate the divine government of the world.

Our space will not allow us to enter minutely into a consideration of the design of the poem, or to discuss the various theories which have been advanced, According to Dr. Davidson, it was "to demonstrate the insufficiency of the current doctrine of compensation.' It condemns the notion that there is a necessary connection between sin and suffering, and without explaining the cause of the latter in the case of a good man, displays the most sublime trust in the wisdom of the divine Providence. It exhibits a noble spirituality: and in several places the mysterious contradictions of life seem to awaken in the soul of the writer thoughts of another life beyond the grave, in which God will vindicate the righteousness of His ways. As a work both of genius and art it occupies well-nigh the first rank in Hebrew literature, and is unsurpassed in sublimity of imaginative thought by any poem of antiquity. The language is elaborate and artificial in the highest degree, yet grandly simple withal, betokening not a primitive period in Jewish history, but one highly advanced. The dramatic construction of the poem indicates the same thing. It has a prologue and epilogue; the dialogues are arranged into three series, or, as they may be termed, acts; each of these, again, consists of three speeches by Job's friends, with three replies by Job himself, which, by a little stretch of fancy, we may describe as separate scenes. The poem (properly so called) opens and closes with a monologue by the author of the piece. The different character of the persons introduced is skillfully observed; their words have a rhythmic flow; and the dialogues are even strophically divided (see Ewald, Das Buch Tjob übersetzt und erklärt, Zireite Auflage, 1854). The integrity of the poem in its present form has been strongly questioned by many critics; the inferiority (in a literary and poetic point of view) of the passages containing the speeches of Elihu (xxxii.-xxxvii.), no less than the nature of the prologue and epilogue, are thought to indicate that these passages are the work of a later band. Compare the commentaries of Schultens, Bertram, Eichhorn, Rosenmüller,

Ewald (with translation), Umbreit. De Wette, Hirzel, Stickel, Schlottmann, Rénan (with an admirable translation into French), Lee, Dillmann, etc.

JOB, BOOK OF (ante), is generally regarded as one of the most ancient in the world. An examination of it reveals several facts tending to the probability that it was written between the deluge and the calling of Abraham. 1. As it contains an earnest discussion concerning the method of God's moral government over men in this life, it seems probable that all the great facts, bearing on the question, which were known to have occurred would be adduced by some one or other of the speakers, on one side or other of the argument. The deluge, as one of such facts, is referred to. "Hast thou marked the old way which wicked men have trodden, who were cut down out of time, whose foundation was overflown by a flood?" But there is no reference to the history of Israel in Canaan, the journey through the wilderness, the judgments on Egypt, or the destruc. tion of the cities of the plain. Why such facts were not employed in such a discussion seems difficult to explain, except on the theory that the book was written before they occurred. 2. The only form of idolatry referred to in the book is the worship of the sun and moon, generally regarded as among the earliest forms of idolatry. 3. The mode of divine worship practiced by Job was the patriarchal, in which the father of the family was the priest, as Noah and Abraham were. This fact implies the great antiquity of the book, but does not decide whether it was written before or after Abraham. 4. The reason assigned for the trial to which Job was subjected appears much more forcible on the supposition that it was made at an early period of the world, when there had been few opportunities to decide the question by an appeal to observation and experi ence. 5. The book contains an unusual number of words of an Arabic cast. This, in the judgment of some, points to an early origin when the connection between Hebrew and Arabic was closer than at a later period. By others this inference is not allowed.

Against the theory that the book was written before Abraham, the tribal names of Job's friends may be urged. Eliphaz was a Temanite, and Bildad a Shuite. As Esau had a grandson Teman and Abraham a son Shuah, if Job's friends were descendants from them a date later than Abraham and Esau must be assigned to the book. But it is possible that there were men of the same names who lived nearer the flood. Job, it is said. was of the land of Uz. As a duke or chief of Edom, contemporary with Esau, had a grandson Uz, it might be inferred that the land received its name from him, and consequently that Job lived after Esan. But from earlier records it appears that Abraham had a nephew and Shem a grandson of the same name, so that the land may have been called after even the earlier of them. A similar possibility exists with regard to the other names. The Chaldeans and the Sabeans also are mentioned, but the origin of both may be traced back near to the flood.

The introduction and conclusion of the book contain brief narratives in prose, but the discussion which occupies the chief part of it is a poem of very high order both in sentiment and style. I. The introduction narrates Job's piety, wealth, and care for the religious welfare of his children. Satan, having insinuated that his piety was prompted by worldly motives, was allowed to try him; first by taking from him his property and children, and afterwards by inflicting on him severe physical suffering. All this he endured for a time without falling into sin. Three of his friends coming to condole with him, rent their garments when they saw him, wept over him, and sat down in silence seven days. At length driven, by the continuance of his severe trials, to the utterance of maledictions against the day of his birth, he ended also the silence of his friends. II. Eliphaz begins the discussion mildly, and with regret that he feels compelled to speak. Reminding Job of his wise and encouraging counsel to others in their afflictions, he expresses surprise that he sinks down under his own sorrows. He asserts that the righteous are never given up to suffering, but that, while the incorrigible are overwhelmed, God punishes also those whose uprightness is imperfect though sincere. He therefore exhorts Job to submit to the calamities which have come on him as the just punishment of his sins, and to hope that, through the mercy of God, all will yet be well with him. Job in reply avers that he has sufficient reason to complain, that his afflictions are too heavy to be borne, and that he wishes for death from the hand of God as the only relief. He complains of his friends as heartless in condemning him; compares them to a deceitful brook which mocks the thirsty traveler; reminds them that he has not sought their sympathy or help, yet assures them that if they have any just con siderations to present he will patiently hear them. He then turns from them to God, lamenting the vanity and weariness of his condition, imploring relief, giving vent to the bitterness of his soul and asking that God will let him alone, will accept his confession. and forgive his sins. Bildad next speaks, roughly assuming that Job's children have been cut off because of their sins, and that Job himself, if he be upright and will seek the Lord, may have his sorrows turned to joy. Job replies that he admits all that has been said concerning the just government of God, but that men are too imperfect to merit his favor and too weak to endure his stroke. Yet, according to the comparative goodness which they can attain, he asserts his righteousness, and complains that God, judging him according to his own infinite holiness, treats him as a sinner notwithstanding all his efforts to do right. Again he bitterly laments his birth, and calls on God to let him alone for a little while that he may have some rest before he goes down to the grave.