7

under John Travers, organist of king's chapel; returned to Exeter, became a teacher and composer, and in 1777 organist and master of the choristers of the cathedral. His songs, canzonets, and trios rank high in England. His Six elegies for three voices Dr. Burnet considered the best of his works. He published in 1782 Thirty Letters on Various Subjects, and in 1798 The Four Ages, together with Essays on Various Subjects. He was also a landscape painter.

JACKSONVILLE, the co. seat of Duval co., Florida, on the w. bank of the St. John's river, 20 m. from its mouth, at the e. terminus of the Jacksonville, Pensacola, and Mobile railroad, 165 m. e. of Tallahassee, and 155 m. s. w. of Savannah; pop. '74, 12,000. The streets cross each other at right angles. The city has 14 churches, 2 national banks, the Stanton institute, a high school, public and private schools, a Roman Catholic academy for girls, a hospital, 5 newspapers, and manufactories for lumber, moss, marmalade, and machinery. Its commerce is considerable. The exports are lumber, cotton. naval stores, sugar, fruits, fish, and vegetables. Steamers run semi-weekly to Savannah and Charleston, and river steamers daily to St. Augustine and Palatka. A bluff on the n.w. commanding a fine view of the city has some elegant residences.

JACKSONVILLE, a city and co. seat of Morgan co., Illinois; 34 m. s.w. of Springfield, 200 m. s. w. of Chicago, 90 m. n. of St. Louis; pop. '80, 11,009. It is at the junction of the Chicago and Alton with the Wabash railroad, and is the s. terminus of the Peoria, Pekin, and Jacksonville railroad. From this city the Jacksonville, North-western, and South-eastern railroad extends to Virden. This city contains 24 churches, 2 national and 2 private banks, a savings bank, 3 hotels, 4 newspapers, a free reading room, a free library of 1600 vols., and a conservatory of music. It is distinguished for its educational and benevolent institutions. It contains Illinois college (Congregational), Illinois college for women (Methodist), Jacksonville academy for girls, a ladies' atheneum, a business college, a high school, and several graded schools. Here are the state institutions for the blind, insane, deaf-mutes, and idiotic. The Lutherans also have an orphan asylum and a retreat for the insane. The city has a woolen mill, a car shop, a foundry, soap factories, planing and flouring mills. The streets are wide and adorned with shade trees, and the city is provided with gas, water-works, and sewerage.

JACK TREE, Artocarpus integrifolia, a native of the East Indies, now spread over most of the tropics. It is nearly allied to the bread-fruit and bears a fruit resembling that of that tree, though much larger. It is used as food in India, but has a disagreeable flavor. Its wood is of excellent character, and is much used for carving, scroll-work, and various fancy articles.

JACME, or JAYME, EN, I.; 1207-1276; b. Montpellier, France; was king of Aragon, and count of Barcelona. He is often called the conqueror from his having conquered the Moorish kingdoms of Majorca, Valencia and Murcia, and imposed tribute on some others. The title en is supposed to be of the same import as the modern don. An ancient account of his life and exploits appeared in a Castilian translation at Barcelona in 1848, but its authenticity is not fully established.

JACMEL, or JACQUEMEL, a sea-port t. on the s. coast of Hayti, on a bay of the same name, 30 m. s.w. of Port-au-Prince; pop. 6,000. Many of the streets are very narrow, and the houses mostly of wood. It has a commodious harbor for the largest vessels, but it is exposed to the s. winds and the heavy sea. It has a considerable trade with the United States, and the West India mail steamers stop here. The climate is hot and unhealthful.

JACOB (Heb. Yaakob, derived variously from "heel," Gen. xxv. 26, or from "to deceive," Gen. xxvii. 36), one of the three chief Hebrew patriarchs. He was the second son of Isaac and Rebekah, and on account of his docile, domestic character was the favorite of his mother. His conduct towards his brother in regard to the birthright (Gen. xxvii.) does not greatly redound to his credit. After an exile of 21 years in Padanaran, whither he had fled to escape the vengenance of Esau, he returned to Canaan with two wives (Rachel and Leah), two concubines (Bilhah and Zilpah), 12 sons (the fathers of the subsequent Hebrew tribes), and a daughter named Dinah, who was the unintentional cause of a vindictive massacre of the Shechemites by her brothers Simeon and Levi. In his 130th year he and his family went down to Egypt, where his favorite son Joseph had become a great man under Pharaoh. Here he lived for 17 years longer in the land of Goshen, and died in his 147th year. His body was embalmed, carried back to Canann with great pomp by his sons, and there buried near Hebron. Mention is frequently made of Jacob both in the Old and New Testaments, and there are also many legends about him in rabbinical and patristic, as well as in the Moham

medan literature

JACOB (ante), as to his natural character, was significantly named "a supplanter." In his bargain with Esau he was unbrotherly and selfish in that, instead of gladly succor ing his famished brother, he set a price on the nourishment which he had ready at hand, and that price extortionate-the birthright for a morsel of meat. He was guilty also in consenting to his mother's device for deceiving his father. Even his temporary opposi tion to it was not made on the right ground. Instead of refusing to do what was pro posed because it was wrong, he objected to doing it only througli fear of discovery, say

46

ing not, "I shall be a deceiver," but. "peradventure I shall seem to be." His execution of the plan involed him in many falsehoods. He said to his father, "I am Esau," though he was not; I have done as thou badest me," though his father had not bidden him do anything, and he had not done what he said he had. He falsely claimed the help of God in what he said he had done. He aggravated the deception in adhering to it by presenting the skin of a kid as his own skin, and giving counterfeit venison as the true. He consummated the fraud by repeating to his still doubting father the declaration, "I am Esau," and by taking the blessing from him as if he were the older soa. His subsequent dealings with Laban also were marred by crafty selfishness, even though he supposed himself driven to it in contending against equal selfishness on Laban's part.

The providential discipline by which Jacob's character was transformed was painful, varied, long continued, and quite in the line of his sins. His brother's anger compelled him to flee from his father's house; the exile which his mother hoped would continue only a few days was prolonged to 20 years; and when at length he was returning home, fear of his brother again filled him with distress. Having imposed himself on his father as the older son, he had an older daughter imposed on him for a wife instead of the younger whom he loved. Having been extortionate in his dealings with his brother and regardless of his exhaustion by the toils of the chase, he found his own wages changed ten times during a course of toil in which, as he said, by day the drought consumed him and the frost by night; and his sleep departed from his eyes. He was greatly afflicted by Rachel's death, was dishonored by the misconduct of his children, and endured years of anguish because of the absence and supposed death of his best-beloved son. During this course of discipline the care of God over him was manifested by the vision at Bethel when he went out from home, by the mysterious wrestling with him at the brook Jabbok on his return, and by the promise to be with him in the final journey of his life down into Egypt to see his long-lost son. After the darkness which had obscured so much of his career, caused chiefly by his persistent efforts to work out his promised destiny for himself, at evening-time with him it was light. The 17 years spent by him in the land of Goshen seem to have been irradiated with the graces of a humble and devout spirit, with an honored old age, and a prophetic insight into the glories of the future for mankind, his children, and himself. Having been chastened in the world, he was not finally condemned with the world. With all his disadvantages of nature and faults of character, rendering him far less attractive socially than his impulsive, careless, generous brother, he had a nature more capable of development on the spiritual side, less controlled by appetite and by the present things of the senses, therefore more capable of being schooled into faith, and of being brought through painful discipline into a true manhood at last.

JACOB, LE BIBLIOPHILE. See LACROIX, PAUL.

JACOBEAN LILY (AMARYLLIS FORMOSISSIMA). See AMARYLLIS, ante.

JACOB OF EDESSA, d. 708; an eminent Syrian theologian and writer who lived in the last half of the 7th century. In early life he entered the monastic order. He was appointed bishop of Edessa about A.D. 651, but resigning his office, he retired to a monastery in Toledo. Here he applied himself to the study of the Syriac version of the Old Testament, making many annotations, some of which are extant. He had a thorough knowledge of Hebrew, Syriac and Greek; and for his able translation of Syriac works into Greek he received the surname of interpreter of the books.

JACOB OF HUNGARY, named THE MASTER, was a religious fanatic in France during the 7th crusade, which in 1244 was headed by Louis IX, or St. Louis. St. Louis having been captured by the Mussulmans of Egypt, Jacob proclaimed through France a crusade for the liberation of the king. With 30,000 shepherds and peasants collected in Flanders, increased at Amilus to 100,000, he entered Paris, his followers committing outrages, killing the monks, and Jacob performing the rites of priest in the church of St. Eustache. Jacob having been killed by order of the queen, his followers were scattered. JACOBI, ABRAHAM, b. Westphalia, 1830; graduated at the university of Bonn in 1851, and removed to the United States in 1853. He was professor of obstetrics and diseases of women at the New York medical college 1860-69, and afterwards at the college of physicians and surgeons. He published Dentition and its Derangements, and was editor of the American Journal of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children. In this branch of medical science he has attained eminence; and recently he has published a volume on diphtheria, valuable as embodying the results of extensive and careful observation.

JACO BI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH, a German philosopher, b. at Düsseldorf, Jan. 25, 1743. He was educated at Frankfort, whence he proceeded to Geneva with a view to preparing himself for a mercantile career. In 1770 he was appointed councilor of finance for the duchies of Berg and Jülich, and having married a lady of fortune, was enabled to devote himself to literary pursuits. In 1804 he removed to Munich, where he had been appointed a member of the newly-instituted academy of sciences, of which he became president in 1807. He died on Mar. 10, 1819. His writings consist partly of romances, and partly of philosophical treatises. The principal are Woldemar (2 vols. Flensb. 1779), Eduard Allwill's Briefsammlung (Bresl. 1781), both philosophical romances;

Jacob's.

Ueber die Lehre des Spinoza in Briefen an Mendelssohn (Bresl. 1785), a polemic against logical methods of speculation in the search after the higher class of moral truths; and David Hume über den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Realismus, in which the same polemic is continued, but in which an attempt is also made to demonstrate that the mind or nature of man possesses another faculty-viz., faith, or moral intuition, by which the higher truths are as firmly grasped as, by faith in the perceptions of the senses we, so to speak, lay hold on the phenomena of the material world. Herein lies the difference between Kant (and indeed the whole school of German idealists) and Jacobi; the former appears to admit only the "subjective" reality of such conceptions as God. the soul, immortality, etc.; the latter claims for them an objective" reality. Kant denies that the faculty of faith" gives us "knowledge," in the strict sense of the word; Jacobi affirms that it does. One of his treatises, Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung (Leip. 1811), was the occasion of a rather sharp controversy between him and Schelling. Jacobi is not a systematic thinker, and did not form a school. He is, as might be expected, deficent in the qualities he despised-method and logical sequence; but his style is remarkably good, possessing both warmth and clearness. It has been compared by his country men to that of Plato. His collected works appeared at Leipsic (6 vols. 1812-24).

JACO BI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB, a celebrated mathematician, was b. at Potsdam, in Prussia, Dec. 10, 1804; studied at the university of Berlin, where he made great progress in philosophy, philology, and mathematics; and in 1829 became a professor at Königsberg. In 1829 he published his celebrated work, Fundamenta nova Theorie Functionum Ellipticorum, for which he received the great medal of the academy of sciences of Paris; the work, however, only contains a portion of his researches on the subject of elliptic functions. In the same year he made a tour through northern Germany and France, forming the acquaintance of Gauss, Legendre, Fourier, Poisson, and other celebrated geometers. In 1842 he took a second journey, in company with his wife, to visit England and Scotland and attend the meeting of the British association. Soon after his return home his health broke down, and he started for Italy. On his return he was removed from Königsberg to Berlin, where he died of small-pox, Feb. 18, 1851. Beside the work above mentioned, Jacobi wrote a great number of memoirs on the different branches of the higher mathematics, chiefly series and definite integrals, and was a regular contributor to the celebrated Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik of Crelle.

JACO'BI, MARY PUTNAM, M.D.; b. London, 1842; daughter of George Putnam; since 1873 wife of Abraham Jacobi, M.D. Coming to New York in 1848 she was educated at the Twelfth steeet grammar school; then in the woman's medical_college in Philadelphia; and graduated from the college of pharmacy in New York: In 1868 she went to Paris, and was the first woman admitted to the école de médicine, from which she graduated in 1871, receiving the second prize, a bronze medal. Returning to New York, she commenced the practice of medicine, and was appointed professor of materia medica in the medical college established by Elizabeth Blackwell, M.D., which position she now holds. She has published many papers in the Medical Record and the Journal of Obstetrics; and recently, in connection with V. A. White, M.D., has published Cold Pack and Massage in the Treatment of Anamia.

JACOBI, MAXIMILIAN, 1775-1858; a German physician, b. in Düsseldorf After studying at Jena, Göttingen, Edinburgh, and Erfurt, he became assistant in a London hospital, and subsequently director of a lunatic asylum at Sulzburg. He favored nonrestraint for the insane. In 1820 he took charge of the insane asylum at Siegburg. At a festival held in 1857 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his doctorate, were present distinguished men from Germany, France, and England.

JACOBI, MORITZ HERMANN, 1801-74; a brother of Karl Gustav Jakob; b. Pottsdam; was professor of civil engineering at the university of Dorpat in 1835; a member of the St. Petersburg academy of sciences in 1847. He distinguished himself by his researches in physics while in Russia. In 1832 he constructed an electric telegraph 18 m. in length between two of the palaces, and discovered by his experiments that the earth could be used to complete the electrical circuit. In 1837, simultaneously with Spencer of England, he invented the process of electrotyping. He contributed treatises on the applications of electro-magnetism to the academy of St. Petersburg.

JACOBIN, the name by which members of the Dominican order were popularly known in France. The name originated from the fact that their mother-establishment was situated in the Rue St. Jacques, in Paris; and it was thence extended to the entire order throughout France.

JAC'OBINS, the members of a political club which exercised a very great influence during the French revolution. It was originally called the Club Breton, and was formed at Versailles, when the states-general assembled there in 1789. It then consisted exclusively of members of the states-general, all more or less liberal or revolutionary, but of very different shades of opinion. On the removal of the court and national assembly to Paris, this club began to acquire importance. It now met in a hall of the former Jacobin convent in Paris, whence it received the name of the Jacobin club, which was

first given to it by its enemies; the name which it adopted being that of the Society of Friends of the Constitution. It now also admitted members who were not members of the national assembly, and held regular and public sittings. It exercised a great influ ence over the agitation, of which the chief seat and focus was in the capital, and this influence was extended over the whole country by affiliated societies. Its power increased until it became greater than that of the national assembly. It formed branch societies or clubs throughout France, of which there were soon not less than 1200. When the national assembly dissolved itself in Sept., 1791, the election of the legislative assembly was mainly accomplished under the influence of the Jacobin club. Almost all the great events which followed in rapid succession were determined by the voice of the club, whose deliberations were regarded with more interest than those of the legislative assembly. It reached the zenith of its power when the national convention met in Sept., 1792. The agitation for the death of the king, the storm which destroyed the Girondists, the excitement of the lowest classes against the bourgeoisie or middle classes, and the reign of terror over all France, were the work of the Jacobins. But the overthrow of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor. 1794, gave also the deathblow to the Jacobin club. The magic of its name was destroyed; and the Jacobins sought in vain to contend against a reaction which increased daily both in the convention and among the people. A law of Oct. 16 forbade the affiliation of clubs, and on Nov. 9, 1794, the Jacobin club was finally closed. Its place of meeting was soon after demolished.The term Jacobins is often employed to designate persons of extreme revolutionary sentiments.

JACOBITES, in church history, is the common name of the oriental sect of Monophysites (q.v.), but it belongs more specially to the Monophysites of Syria, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea. The name is derived from a Syrian monk called Jacobus Baradæus (Bar-dai), who in the reign of Justinian formed the Monophysite recusants of his country into a single party. The Jacobites at present number about 40,000 families, and are subject to two patriarchs, appointed by the sultan-one resident at Diarbekir, with the title of patriarch of Antioch; the other at Saphran, under the style of patriarch of Jerusalem.

JACOBITES (from Jacobus, the Latin form of James), the name given to the adherents of the male line of the house of Stuart in Great Britain and Ireland after the revolution of 1688. Many of the most devoted royalists followed James II. into France; but the greater part of the Jacobites remaining in their native land made a greater or less show of submission to the new government, whilst they secretly supported the cause of the Pretender. Their intrigues and conspiracies were incessant till the middle of the 18th century. Their hostility to the house of Hanover broke out in rebellions in 1715 and 1745, in consequence of which not a few of them lost their lives upon the scaffold, titles were attainted, and estates confiscated. After 1745 their cause became so obviously hopeless that their activity in a great measure ceased; and it was not long till it ceased altogether, and those who still retained their attachment to the exiled family acquiesced in the order of things established by the revolution. In Scotland, the hopes and wishes of the Jacobite party were expressed in many spirited songs, which form an interesting part of the national literature. See the Cullodin Papers (Lond. 1815); Hogg's Jacobite Relics (2 vols. Edin. 1819); and Chambers's Jacobite Memoirs (Edin. 1824). The Jacobites of England were also called Tories. They were generally distinguished by warm attachment to the church of England, as opposed to all dissent, if they were not members of the church of Rome, and held very strongly the doctrine of non-resistance, or the duty of absolute submission to the king. The Jacobites of Scotland were also generally Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. Macaulay, however, points out that the Highland clans which espoused the Jacobite cause did so on other grounds than the English Jacobites, and were far from having previously received the doctrine of non-resistance. In Ireland, the Jacobite cause was that also of the Celts as opposed to the Saxons, or the native race against the English colonists, and of the Roman Catholics against the Protestants. These diversities prevented a complete union, and greatly weakened the Jacobites.-See History of the Rebellion in 1745, by R. Chambers.

JACOBS, PAUL EMIL, 1802-66; b. Gotha; a German painter; studied at Munich and Rome; resided in St. Petersburg, 1830-34. Returning to Gotha in 1840 he became court-painter to the grand duke, and died in his native city. His "Adam and Eve," "The Flight into the Wilderness," "Judith and Holofernes," "Samson and Delilah," were very popular, the last two receiving prizes in Philadelphia in 1850.

JACOB'S LADDER, on shipboard, is a short rope-ladder with wooden steps, to give easy access to the shrouds and tops. It is also the name of an apparatus for raising light weights a considerable height. One form, much used in breweries and distilleries, is an endless revolving chain of buckets, filling themselves at the bottom of the chain, and emptying themselves at the top.

JACOB'S LADDER, Polemonium cœruleum, a herbaceous perennial plant of the natural order polemoniacea, a rare native of Britain, but more common in the center and s. of Europe, found also in the temperate parts of Asia and of North America. It is com

Jacquard.

mou in flower-gardens in Britain. It has pinnate leaves, with ovato-lanceolate leaflets, a smooth stem 1 to 24 ft. high, and a terminal raceme of bright blue (sometimes white) flowers, with wheel-shaped 5-lobed corolla. Great medicinal virtues were once ascribed to it, but the only quality which it seems to possess is a slight astringency.

JACOBSON, WILLIAM, D.D.; b. England, 1803; graduated at Oxford in 1827; was vice-president of Magdalen hall, 1832-48; and then appointed regius professor of divinity. In 1865 he became bishop of Chester. He edited Remains of the Apostolic Fathers, 2 vols.; Nowell's Catechism; and the Collected Works of Bishop Sanderson, 6 vols.; and published two volumes of sermons.

JACOB OF VITRY; d. 1240; b. Vitry, France, in the last half of the 12th century. Attracted while a presbyter at Argenteuil by the sanctity of Maria of Ognies, he became her devoted disciple. At the request of the pope he preached against the Albigenses, and, finally enlisting in the enterprise of liberating the holy sepulcher, he went through France to levy contributions. He was made bishop of Acre in 1217 by Honorius III., and at his request went to the Holy Land. Here he baptized the children of the Saracens which the Christians had taken, and intrusted them to the care of pious women. Resigning that see in 1225 he returned to Ognies, and was made by pope Gregory IX. cardinal and papal legate of France, Brabant, and the Holy Land. His work Historia Orientalis, or History of Jerusalem, is valuable. He published also Life of St. Mary of Ognies, sermons on the gospels and epistles, and several letters. He was an eloquent preacher.

JACOBY, JOHANN, b. 1805; a German physician; practiced in Berlin and Heidelberg. His political opinions made him notorious, and he was arrested four times upon suspicion, being accused of high treason. For his pamphlets, Vier Fragen and Das Königliche Wort Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was pardoned; but for some later publications of his opinions he was imprisoned.

JACOBY, LUDWIG SIGISMUND, D.D.; b. Mecklenburg, 1811; was of Jewish parentage, but became converted to Christianity in early manhood. He came to America and entered the Methodist church as a preacher, 1849. He was active in establishing missions in both this country and Europe, and founded a theological college at Bremen. Returning to America in 1872, he became a pastor in St. Louis, Mo.

JACOTOT, JEAN JOSEPH, the inventor of the "universal method" of education, was b. at Dijon, in France, in 1770. He served for some time in the army, but in 1790 was appointed by Napoleon first to the chair of mathematics in the normal school, afterwards secretary to the minister at war, and a director of the polytechnic. He retired to Belgium in 1815, where he was appointed lecturer on French literature in the unversity of Louvain, and afterwards director of the military normal school. He returned to Paris in 1838, and died there July 30, 1840. His system, propounded in general rules, which, however, without his own explanation, would have been quite unintelligible, appears to consist in directing the student's exertions to particular subjects, encouraging and inciting him in every possible manner to make use of his mental powers, and there leaving him; the teacher is on no account to become an expounder, but after setting the student on the right track, is to leave him to explain away his own difficulties. Jacotot's method very much resembled that of Hamilton (see HAMILTONIAN SYSTEM), and, like it, was crude and one-sided. The valuable elements of it have been incorporated in the more rational and catholic methods of recent times. The wonderful results said to have been produced by Jacotot are, so far as real, to be attributed to the exceptional zeal and energy that always characterize the apostle of a new system, as much as to the system itself.

JACO VA, or YAKOVA, a t. of European Turkey, Albania, in the pashalic of Scutari, on the White Drin, 20 m. n. w. of Prisrend. Pop. 18,000.

JACQUARD LOOM, a loom fitted with the Jacquard apparatus for the purpose of pattern-weaving. This apparatus was the invention of M. Joseph Marie Jacquard, an ingenious Frenchman, a native of Lyons, who, being necessitated to carry on the weav ing business of his father, for which he had a distaste, and, according to some accounts, still further stimulated by reading an account in an English newspaper of the offer of a premium for any person who should invent a machine for weaving nets, set his wits to work to improve the existing machinery for weaving. By his invention he enabled an ordinary workman, with comparative ease, to produce the most beautiful patterns in a style which had only previously been accomplished with almost incredible patience, skill, and labor. Nevertheless, the reception of his great invention by the public was most dispiriting, for although rewarded with a small pension by Napoleon, the silkweavers themselves offered such violent opposition to its introduction that on one occasion he narrowly escaped with his life, and his machine was broken up by the body of men who, under the title of the conseil des prud'hommes, were appointed to watch over the interests of the Lyonnese traders, and it was destroyed in the public square of Lyons. To use Jacquard's own language: "The iron was sold for iron, the wood for wood, and he himself was delivered over to universal ignominy:" nevertheless, on that same spot where the machine was publicly destroyed, a statue now stands, to show the gratitude of a more enlightened generation.