Izard.

decision, and culture-"the Bismarck of Japan." Three of his sons were educated in the United States.

IXCAQUIXTLA, a t. in Puebla, Mexico; pop. 5.000: noted for a severe battle, Jan. 1, 1817, between the Spanish troops under La Madrid and the Mexican rebels under gen. Mier. It is occupied by the Chuchon Indians, the remnants of a race of southern Mexico who were conquered by the Aztecs and Mixtecas. Near the town are numerous mounds of earth or stone, now used by the Indians as altars for their offerings to Montezuma.

IXION, in Greek mythology, a king of the Lapithe. When Deïneus, whose daughter Dia he had espoused, demanded the usual nuptial gifts, Ixion invited him to a feast on pretense of paying him, and caused him to fall into a pit of fire which he had secretly prepared. Shunned by all for his treachery, Jupiter in pity invited him to his table, but, discovering his attempt to seduce Juno, he condemned him to be fastened to a perpetually revolving fiery wheel. He was the supposed father of the centaurs.

IXMIQUIL PAN, a t. and district in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico, on the river Montezuma, 80 m. n. of the city of Mexico; pop. 10,000. In 1861 it was for some months the head-quarters of gen. Zuloaga, who claimed to be president. The inhabitants are mostly Indians of the Otomi race. In the vicinity of the town there are several silver mines owned by English companies.

IXTAPALA'PA, a t. of Mexico, 10 m. s.e. of the capital; pop. 5,000. When Mex. ico was conquered it was a large and important city, noted for the beautiful gardens of the Aztec kings, and was the residence of a brother of Montezuma.

IXTLAHUA CA, a district in Mexico, in the northern part of the state of the same name, 60 m. from the city of Mexico. It was anciently the abode of the large and important race of Mazahua Indians. It has silver mines, which for lack of capital are not now worked.

IXTLAN', a t. and district of Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca, 40 m. from the city of Oajaca, occupied mostly by the Zapoteco Indians. It has numerous silver mines. In the neighborhood of Ixtlan is the village of San Pablo Guelatao, the birthplace of president Benito Juarez.

IXTLILXO'CHITL, FERNANDO DE ALVA; b. Mexico about the middle of the 17th c., and lived to a great age. He was a descendant of the kings of Tezcuco, was interpreter of the native languages to several viceroys of Mexico, and a laborious collector of the ancient MSS. and traditions of his country. Both Mr. Prescott and lord Kingsborough made use of his writings in the compilations of their histories. Many valuable manuscripts of his are in the archives of Mexico.

IYE YASU. See TOKUGAWA.

IZABAL, a seaport of Guatemala, 123 m. from the capital, on the s. shore of lake Dolce or Izabal. It is 40 m. from the sea by the river Izabal or Rio Dolce. The water being low at the mouth of the river large vessels go to Balize, and their cargo is sent by coasting vessels to Izabal.

IZALCO, a t. in the republic of San Salvador, Central America, 40 m. s.w. of the city of San Salvador; pop. 4,000, mostly Indians. It was anciently a place of impor tance, especially for the cultivation of the cacao, but the earthquake of 1859 greatly affected its prosperity. The soil is well watered and fertile.

This is also the name of a remarkable volcanic mountain 36 m. n.w. of the city of San Salvador. It is near a group of extinct volcanoes about 6,000 ft. in height; and the first eruption occurred in 1770 during an earthquake. The eruptions are almost incessant. though of unequal violence, and are visible far out at sea. Mariners call it the light-house of San Salvador."

IZAMAL', a city of Yucatan, 50 m. s.e. of Merida. A church and convent were built here in the 16th c. by the bishop of Yucatan. The ruins of an ancient city are found, which Mr. Stephens describes in Travels in Yucatan.

IZARD, a n. co. of Arkansas, drained by the White river, and bounded by it on the n.w.; 550 sq m.; pop. '80, 10,856. It is partly mountainous, and the soil is fertile. The staple products are wheat, maize, oats, cotton, and tobacco. Some minerals are found. The capital is Melbourne.

IZARD, GEORGE, 1777-1228; b. S.C. After receiving a classical education he trav eled extensively in Europe. In 1794 he was appointed lieut. of artillery; in 1798 he had charge of the fortifications of Charleston harbor; and in 1799 was aid to gen. Hamilton. When the second war with Great Britain began he was appointed col. of artillery, Mar. 12, 1812; in 1813 was brig gen.; in 1814 maj.gen. He was governor of Arkansas territory from 1825 till his death.

IZARD, RALPH, 1742-1804; b. S. C.; educated at Cambridge, England. He was a southern planter of great wealth in land and slaves inherited from his grandfather, who was one of the founders of South Carolina. He distinguished himself in the revolu tionary war. During a residence in London, in 1771, he endeavored to show the British ministry the impolicy of their conduct towards the colonies, but, failing in his good

intentions, he retired in 1774 to the continent. In 1780 he returned to the United States, and by his influence obtained the appointment of gen. Greene to the command of the southern army. He evinced his patriotism by pledging his fortune to procure ships of war from Europe. He was a delegate to the old congress, 1781-83, and United States senator, 1789-95. He died at South Bay. He was polished in manners, an eloquent speaker, but of a passionate temper. His correspondence was published by his daughter in 1844.

IZDUBAR', a name found in Chaldean inscriptions recording ancient Babylonian legends, by some investigators supposed to be that of a veritable Babylonian king, but by others, including Max Müller and Rawlinsor, supposed to signify the Hercules of the Chaldean mythology. The fact of the name occurring in inscriptions, possessed by the British museum, in connection with 12 legends not unlike those which describe the 12 labors of Hercules, has led to this latter conception. Meanwhile, other evidence derived from a similar source would appear to signify that this character was a king in Babylonia, who is, by some writers, identified with the biblical Nimrod, and who was deified after his death on account of his marvelous accomplishments. Mr. George Smith, of the British Museum, held this view of the matter, and in his Assyrian Discoveries, published in London in 1875, made a translation of the legends and inscriptions in question.

IZTACCIHUATL, an extinct volcano in Mexico, 15,705 ft. above the sea, near Popocatepetl, and 30 m. from Puebla. It is often called Sierra Nevada from its being covered with snow. The name, composed of the Mexican words iztae, white, and cihuatl, woman, was given on account of its resemblance to a woman in a white dress.

IZU'CAR, or MATAMO'ROS IZUCAR, a city and district of Puebla, Mexico. The city is 90 m. s.e. of Mexico, at the base of Popocatepeti; pop. 12,000. It is the center of a rich sugar region. A railroad was commenced in 1875 to connect it with Puebla. It takes its name from the Mexican gen., Manuel Matamoros,

J,

J

THE tenth letter in our alphabet, has in Eng. the power of dzh; in Fr., of zh; and in Ger. of y. Both the sound and the character have sprung out of the original vowel i. When such a word as Iulius is pronounced rapidly, it naturally slides into Yulius. The Romans, though they had but one character for both, recognized this distinction between the vowel and the semi-vowel; and in the case of such words as cuius, maius, some writers doubled the i, and wrote one or both long, as cullus, or cuilus. There is little doubt that the original Roman sound of this semi-vowel was that of Eng. y (youth), still given to it in German. But as this sound has a tendency to convert the consonant preceding it into a sibilant (see letter C), so it has a tendency to become itself sibilant, and Yul- slides into Fr. zhul-, Eng. dzhul. This transition had already taken place in the later ages of the Latin, at all events, in the popular pronunciation, as appears from such inscriptions as congiunta, for conjuncta; Žesu, for Jesu.

It was the Dutch scholars of the 16th and 17th centuries that first introduced a regular distinction between the consonantal and vowel powers of i, and marked the former by the distinct character j (a long i, projecting below the line). The character has been adopted in the modern Teutonic and Romanic languages. The Italian represents the sibilant sound of j by gi or ggi, as Giovanni, from Lat. Johannes; maggiore, from Lat. maior. In Span., it has a guttural power, and is interchangeable with a, as Xeres, or Jeres.

JABBOK, a stream which intersects the mountain range of Gilead, and after a course nearly from e. to w., falls into the Jordan midway between the sea of Galilee and the Dead sea, 30 m. below the lake of Tiberias. Its whole length is about 65 miles. It was the boundary between the territories of the Amorites and Ammonites, and afterwards between the tribe of Reuben and the half-tribe of Manasseh. Its modern name is Wady Zerka. In its passage westward it runs more than once underground, but as it enters the more hilly country e. of the Jordan, its volume is increased from several springs which render it perennial. On approaching the Jordan it flows through a ravine deep, narrow, and wild, the steep banks of which, in nearly its whole course, are covered with cane and oleander. The scenery along the Jabbok is said to be the most picturesque in Palestine.

JA BIRU, Mycteria, a genus of birds of the same family with storks and adjutants; the chief distinction from the storks being that the bill is a little carved upwards. The species are few, but are widely distributed in South America, Africa, and Australia.

JABLONSKI, PAUL ERNST, 1695-1757; b. Berlin; the most distinguished oriental scholar of his time. After completing the usual course at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he applied himself to eastern languages, especially the Coptic, and at the age of 21 was sent by the Prussian government to pursue his studies in the libraries of Oxford, Paris, and Leyden. On his return he became pastor of the Protestant church at Liebenberg, and

Jacaranda.

professor of theology at Frankfort. He was a member of the academy of sciences of Berlin. His works numbered 50, the most valuable of which is the Pantheon Egyptio rum, 3 vols., 1750-52.

JABORANDI, a name given in South America to several species of plants used as diaphoretics. The plant grows chiefly in Brazil, and is most known in the neighborhood of Pernambuco. The botanical name is pilocarpus pennatifolius (Lemaire). The leaves are imparipinnate, composed of 4 to 10 short-stalked leaflets about 4 in. long, ovate-oblong, upper surface dark-green, shining, under surface paler, smooth or slightly hairy, midrib prominent. When bruised they are aromatic; taste somewhat bitter. The important constituents are a volatile oil, and an alkaloid called pilocarpin, which combines with various acids to form salts. According to Kingzett (1876) the chemical formula for the alkaloid is C23H34N.O.. According to Hardy the oil consists of a hydrocarbon, pilocarpene, having the formula CiH16; sp. gr. 85; boiling-point, 352.4 F.; another hydrocarbon boiling at 492 F., and a third having a still higher boiling point, being a transparent solid when isolated, at crdinary temperatures. An infusion of the leaves or a fluid-extract or tincture, may be given internally; or one of the salts may be administered with a hypodermic syringe. When an infusion of 90 grains of the dried leaves, or an extract or tincture of corresponding strength is swallowed, it produces, in the course of two or three minutes, a flushing of the face, and in the course of five or six minutes drops of sweat appear on the forehead, and soon afterwards on other parts of the body and limbs. When sweating is established the face becomes pale, and a profuse secretion of saliva and nasal and bronchial mucus is poured out upon the mucous surfaces, and often there is an abundant secretion of tears. The salivation is often so profuse as to interfere with speech. The average duration of sweating is about one hour and a half, and the temperature usually falls 1° F. The average loss of fluid by sweating is nearly two pints, but the loss is said sometimes to be four quarts if the salivary and mucous secretions are included. Sometimes, though rarely, sweating does not take place, but salivation is more frequently absent than sweating. Vomiting is a usual occurrence, but the nausea is not great. The quantity of urine secreted during the sweating is diminished, and is passed with pain. Urea appears in the perspiration and saliva. The sight frequently becomes dimmed-an effect attributed to the action of the drug on the muscles of accommodation belonging to the lens. See EYE. Jaborandi is an effective galactagogue, or promoter of the lacteal secretion. When given in moderate doses it increases the flow of milk, and on this account is one of the most valuable late additions to the materia medica. The hypodermic injection of one-sixth or one-fifth of a grain of pilocarpin, or the muriate, produces much the same effects as the internal administration of the infusion of the leaves, but the action is more prompt as well as more lasting. With the hypodermic injection sweating always takes place, and vomiting is less frequent.

The medical uses of jaborandi are numerous. It often promptly relieves the distressing symptoms of pleurisy by removing the fluid in the pleural sac. See PLEURISY. In hydrothorax the relief given is even more noticeable, and also in many cases of dropsy, those arising from certain forms of kidney disease being often cured. In dropsy caused by heart-disease the relief which it affords is more temporary; and it should be used with great caution by those disposed to cardiac affections, as it possesses peculiar power in restraining the contractions of the heart, and is used by experimental physiologists in investigating the functions of the nervous system. In those dropsical affections, however, which are connected with simple hypertrophy of the ventricles, the use of jaborandi is attended with marked benefit. Dr. Gaspar Griswold, of New York, has employed the muriate of pilocarpin as a hypodermic injection in several cases of intermittent fever with almost uniform success. See INTERMITTENT FEVER. According to Galezowski, pilocarpin is equal to eserin, the active principle of the Calabar bean (q.v.). in producing contraction of the pupil, and is employed in ophthalmic surgery in cases where atropine, which produces dilatation of the pupil, is contraindicated. It is reported to have been used in mumps with signal benefit, and in asthma it has been found to give great relief. The salts of the alkaloid may be given internally in doses of from one-fourth to three-fourths of a grain, and hypodermically from oue-sixth to one-fifth of a grain, dissolved in water.

JABUTICABA. See EUGENIA.

JA CANA, Parra, a genus of birds of the order gralle, commonly ranked in the family rallida, natives of the warm parts of Asia and the Asiatic islands, Africa, and South America. In general appearance, they much resemble gallinules and coots. The feet, though not webbed, are adapted, by the great length of the toes and claws, for walking on the surface of weed-covered lakes and swamps, the native haunts of these birds, where they never fail to attract the attention of the traveler. The COMMON JACANA (P. jacana) is a South American species, abundant in Guiana and Brazil. It is about 10 in. long; black, except the back and part of the wings, which are of a bright chestnut color. The INDIAN JACANA (P. Indica) and the CHINESE JACANA (P. sinensis) are also among the best known species. Both are found in India and other parts of the east.

JACARANDA WOOD, a very hard, heavy, brown wood, also called rosewood, from its faint agreeable smell of roses. It is brought from South America, and is produced by

several trees of the genus jacaranda, of the natural order bignoniacea. Several species of this genus are called caroba in Brazil, and are there accounted anti-syphilitic.—Several species of the nearly allied genus tecoma also have an extremely hard wood, as T. pentaphylla, a native of the Caribbean islands. The Brazilian Indians make their bows of the wood of T. toxiphora or pao d'arco.

JACARÉ, the crocodilus sclerops of Schneider, or more recently the jacaré sclerops, a South American reptile allied to the alligator and cayman, and whose place has not, perhaps, been definitely assigned. The alligators and caymans belong to the family crocodilide, and it has been proposed (see ALLIGATOR) to constitute a sub-family, alligatorida, dividing it into genera, jacaré, alligator, and cayman, and that classification is here adopted. The animal is found principally in the tropics, never, according to Azara, below 32 s. lat. It is particularly numerous in Brazil, where it attains a larger size than the North American crocodile or alligator. The head is rather thinner than that of the latter animal, the sides converging towards the snout, forming an isoscoles triangle. The surface of the cranial bones has a rough, scabrous appearance, as if diseased. The orbits are surrounded by prominent ridges of bone, connected together by a median ridge, the whole presenting the appearance of a pair of spectacles. Behind the orbit the skull is pierced by two very small holes. The cervical plates are very large, are arranged in four transverse bands, the first two containing four plates each, and each of the others two. The transverse bands of the back, varying according to age and, probably, with the individual, usually consist of two rows with two plates each, four rows with six plates each, five rows with eight plates each, two with six, and four with four plates each. The jacaré is greenish brown on the upper side and on the under side marbled with various shades of green and greenish yellow. It attains a size of from 14 to 18 ft.. the head forming about one-ninth of the whole length. It is not as fierce as the Mississippi alligator, and is said never to have been known to attack men unless near where it has laid its eggs. Their preferred food is fish and waterfowl, of which there is generally an abundance in the waters which they inhabit. Their eggs are about the size of those of a goose, white, and much sought after by the natives as food, who also eat the flesh of the reptile, but it has a strong, musky smell, and but little juiciness. The female deposits her eggs in the sand in a single layer, covering them with straw or leaves, but the vultures find most of them, and many of the young are devoured by the adult males when the rivers become low and other prey is scarce. See ALLIGATOR, CAYMAN, and CROCODILE, ante.

66

JACK. The Jewish Jacobus was corrupted through Jacquemes to Jacques in France, and James in England; and Jacques being the commonest Christian name in the former country, was used as a contemptuous expression for a common man. Jucquerie, an insurrection of the peasants. The introduction of the word in the same sense into England seems to have led to the use of Jack as the familiar synonym of John, which happened to be here the commonest name, as Jacques in France. The term was then applied to any mechanical contrivance for replacing the personal service of an attendant, or to an implement subjected to rough and familiar usage."-Wedgewood's Dictionary of English Etymology. This will be found to explain the very varied use of this word, whether single or in composition, as boot-jack, jack-boots, black-jack (a leathern jug for household service). Jacket (the diminutive of Jack) is a short coat for homely use.

JACK, JAK, or JACA, Artocarpus integrifolia, a tree of the same genus with the bread-fruit (q.v.), a native of the East Indies. It is a larger tree than the bread-fruit, and has undivided leaves. The fruit is very large, weighing from 5 to 50, sometimes 70 lbs. The fruit, which is produced in very great abundance, resembles the bread-fruit, but is of very inferior quality, the pulp having a strong, unpleasant flavor; yet it forms great part of the food of the natives in some parts of India, Ceylon, etc. The seeds, which lie immediately under the rind, are very palatable when roasted. The timber, which is yellowish, is used for almost every purpose, being both strong and ornamental, and is imported into Britain for making musical instruments, cabinet work, the backs of bruslies, marqueterie floors, etc. The Jack is now much planted in many tropical countries of which it is not a native.

JACK-A-LANTERN. See IGNIS FATUUS.

JACKAL (corrupted from Sp. and Fr. chacal), the common name of a number of species and varieties of the dog genus, abounding in many perts of Asia and Africa, but not found in any of the other quarters of the globe, except that one of the kinds extends into Greece. They agree in all their most important characters with wolves and dogs, and many naturalists suppose that some of the domestic varieties of dog are of jacal parentage. The pupil of the eye is circular, as in the dog and wolf, although the form and tail are somewhat fox-like. The head is narrow, and the muzzle pointed. The ears are erect, and rather large. The tail is not so long as in foxes, but is almost equally bushy. All the jackals are of small size, as compared with wolves, seldom excecding 15 in. in height at the shoulder. Their colors are buff and tawny, more or less grizzled; the tip of the tail is always dark. They make holes for themselves in the ground by burrowing, or take possession of such as already exist among rocks or ruins; and in these they spend the day, not venturing abroad till the dusk of evening. They

hunt during the night in troops, and their hovlings are described by all who have heard them as peculiarly horrible. The notion th..t the jackal is the lion's provider, and guides the royal beast to his prey, is one of the exploded fables of natural history, although it may have some foundation in the lion's occasionally following a troop of jackals in full cry, and appropriating "the lion's share. Jackals are not only ready to devour any animal which they can run down, but any carrion which they may meet with. They follow armies; they dig up the ill-buried dead; they rob hen-roosts and outhouses; but they are as omnivorous as domestic dogs, eating farinaceous or other vegetable food when it comes in their way; they are even said, like foxes, to enter vineyards, and devour the grapes. They have a very offensive smell, which, however, is said to diminish through domestication, and they are domesticated without difficulty. The name of COMMON JACKAL is sometimes given to the species (canis aureus) which is found in the western parts of Asia, and which is in general yellowish gray above, and whitish below, with yellow legs and thighs. But it is doubted if this animal was in ancient times plentiful, as it is now, in Syria and neighboring parts of Asia. It is thought_not improbable that it may have followed the track of armies from the farther east. It is pretty certain that it has, in comparatively modern times, become common in parts of Asia more northern than it formerly inhabited. It is not improbable, however, that it is included under the name for in the Hebrew Scriptures.

JACKASS, LAUGHING, Dacelo gigantea, a bird of the kingfisher family (halcyonida), and sometimes described in works on natural history as the great brown kingfisher. It agrees very nearly with the kingfishers in its form and characters, but differs from them in its habits, not frequenting waters, nor feeding on fish, but preying on beetles, reptiles, and small mammalia. It is about 18 in. long, and mostly of a brown color. It is a common bird in Australia, and has received its English name from the colonists, on account of the peculiar sounds which it utters. The natives call it gogobera, apparently in imitation of its cry. It is of great use in preventing the excessive multiplication of reptiles and other pests. Its bill is powerful enough to crush the heads of snakes. It is easily tamed, and is sometimes kept in gardens, from which it does not seek to escape.

JACK BOOTS, tall boots of tough thick leather, reaching above the knee, and formerly worn by cavalry. In some instances, as an additional protection against sword-cuts, they were lined with thin plates of iron. The only regiments in the British service which still retain these handsome but cumbrous boots are the life guards and royal horse guards. See Boots.

JACKDAW (Corvus monedula), a species of crow, smaller than the rook and carrion crow, its utmost length being only about 14 inches. It is black, with dark-gray neck. It is a common British bird, and is plentiful also in some parts of continental Europe, Asia, and the n. of Africa. It is not found in America. It builds its nest in holes of cliffs, ruins, etc. It frequents towns and villages, often making its nest in a chimney by dropping down stick after stick till some of them become fixed in their oblique descent; and on these others are piled, affording a firm base for a nest of wool or other soft substance. The jackdaw lays from four to seven (usually five) bluish-white eggs, which are covered with dark-brown spots. Marvelous instances are recorded of the quantity of sticks employed to form a jackdaw's nest, in situations where an unusual height of pile was required. In 1842 a pair of jackdaws, in 17 days, made a pile 10 ft. high in the staircase of the bell-tower of Eton college. The jackdaw is a social bird. It is easily domesticated, and becomes very pert and familiar. It has considerable powers of mimicry, and even imitates the human voice.

JACHMANN, EDUARD KARL EMANUEL; b. Dantzic, 1822; a distinguished naval officer, rising from the position of a common sailor to be a director (1857-9) of the Prussian admiralty. In 1862 he commanded an expedition to China; in 1864 defeated the Danes at the island of Rügen: in 1867 was placed at the head of the naval department: in 1868 was made vice admiral; and in the Franco-German war (1871), had command of the Baltic fleet, and was commander-in-chief of the whole German navy.

JACITA RA PALM, Desmoncus macroacanthus, a palm found in the forests of the low lands of the Amazon district in South America. It has a slender, flexible stem (see DESMONCUS), Often 60 or 70 ft. long. The outer part of the stem, cut into long strips. is much used for making those very strong and elastic plaited cylinders in which the grated root of the mandioc (cassava or tapioca) is squeezed to free it from its poisonous juice. It might probably be found useful for many other purposes, and seems emi. nently suitable for many kinds of wicker-work.

JACK, a co. in n. Texas, intersected by a fork of Trinity river; 900 sq.m.: pop. 70, 694. It is partly covered with forests. The soil is not much cultivated. Stockraising is the chief employment. Co. seat, Jacksborough.

JACK SCREW, a machine for raising heavy weights, chiefly buildings of various kinds, as houses and ships. It has various forms, the most powerful being a differential screw. The most convenient form, however, is a single screw and net, the inclined plane of the screw being as near a horizontal as is consistent with the thickness of the