Influenza.

through the natural processes of phonetic change and decay, the compounds thus formed gradually assumed the forms now known in grammar as cases, numbers, persons, tenses, etc. In some instances the original suffix can be readily recognized, and, by the help of comparative grainmar, much has been done in recent times in tracing the more disguised inflections to their source; so that the greater part may be considered as satisfactorily established. Confining our remarks to the Indo-European languages, we may safely assert that the syllables used in forming the cases of nouns and the terminations of verbs are of pronominal origin. Thus, mi, si, ti, as the endings of the three persons of the present singular of the verb, are evidently connected with the personal pronouns ma, två (sva), ta; and the plurals mas, tas, nti, contain the same with an indication of the plural number. The nominative singular of masculines and feminines, ending in 8 (equu-8, ïññо-5, fini-s, πi6r1-5), contains the personal pronoun of the third person, ta (ro, nom. sa, ó); the plura!, piscēs, nópanes, is probably only a corruption of the same pronoun put twice (pisci-sa-sa-i.e., fish that and that), the doubling of the pronominal element expressing symbolically a plurality of the same thing. In the oblique cases we meet with other pronominal elements, which indicate that a certain thing is placed with regard to the predicate in the three fundamental directions of motion-those of whither, where, and whence. The accusative is the exponent of the direction of an action towards some object, and its termination m, in the plural ns (i.e., m with the plural termination 8), is connected with the pronomen ama, yon. I (comp, Lat. i-s, i-d, i-bi) is the pronominal syllable employed for signifying that an action has arrived at a certain goal, and is continuing there, giving the dative and locative cases; while the starting from a certain point is indicated by the pronoun of the third person ta, and its equivalent sơ (that), corrupted to t and 8, the termination of the ablative and genitive cases. The dative and genitive of the plural express the same relations as the singular, though they are less clear as to their origin. If, notwithstanding the identity of terminations, the aggregate of nouns must, by a manifest analogy, be classified into several distinct declensions, this, in most cases, is to be accounted for by the difference of the formation of stems or bases previous to their coming in contact with the affixes. It is natural that the so-called crude forms should undergo a different process of contraction according to the nature of their final vowel. The dative lupo, from the crude form lupõ, is as much a contraction of lupo-i, as is the dative fini from fini-i. Cousonantic bases, or of the vocalic, those which end in u (v), a vowel of a decided consonantic quality, are most apt to preserve the inflections in their unaltered form, being less liable to change on the conflict of congruous or incompatible elements. Accordingly, we find that the third Greek and the third and fourth Latin declensions present a much more normal aspect of the original inflections than the others. This does not preclude the possibility of a peculiar inflection being preserved in one or other declension; for nothing is more certain than that language, at a certain stage of its development, created and applied a great variety of means to the same purpose, and that these became limited only when the rising intellect of the human tribes, and their distribution into larger or smaller political bodies, taught and compelled them to economize their ways of expression.

In the formation of certain tenses of the verb we find a process different from the combination of a nominal or verbal base with a pronominal syllable. The Latin subjunctive of the first conjugation, the future in bo, the Greek optative and future, the Latin imperfect, and the perfect ending in avi, ui, ivi, consist of the verbal root with an already inflected form of the verbs i, to go, as and fu, to be. However strange this may appear at first sight, it is nevertheless a fact that, e.g., ɛinr, I would be (for ¿6-1v, Ser. 8-yám, Lat. s-iem), originally meant I go (if I mistake not) in being, I am in doubt of the fact of being; that noin-6815, thou wilt do, is literally translated, thou mayst be doing." The Latin bat for i-fuat, or i-vit for i-fuit, is still more clearly, "he was in the act of going." That auxiliary verbs sometimes assume the function of inflections is proved by the French future, whose forms like trouverai, finirai, are easily recognized as composi tions of the infinitive with the verb avoir (finir-ai, I have to finish).

64

The inflections hitherto described affect the end of words, and possess the character of a composition of a significative word or root with a syllable of local import, or an inflected form of a verb. But language also employs other means of a symbolical nature, either in the middle or the beginning of verbs. with the object of representing the various aspects in which an action can appear. We find that the present tenses generally have longer forms than those of the past. The additions commonly used are long vowels or diphthongs, inserted nasals and semi-vowels, or, lastly, repuplication. It seems that the weight given to the verbal root by these appliances is intended to exhibit the continuance of an action in the present tenses, in contrast with the fleeting or momentary operation of the past. In a similar manner the long vowels peculiar to the subjunctive in Greek (τύπτετον τύπτητον, τύπτομεν τυπτωμεν) convey the idea of doubt or uncertainty, by means of the longer interval required for the pronunciation of the intermediate long vowel, thus expressing the hesitation of the speaker with regard to the reality of his judgment. The reduplication in the perfect, being originally a repetition of the root (tu-tudi), is not so much the sign of a past time as the symbol for an action having passed from the stage of incipience into that of completion.

The wear and tear of time exercises its influence as well on the radical part of words as on their inflections. Grammatical terminations of a totally different formation by

corruption become obscured, and identical in shape with others of heterogeneous purport. The Latin Romae takes on itself the functions of Româ-i-s (gen.), of Romá-i (dat.), Roma-i (locat.), and Romá-i-es (nom. pl.); or populo those of populo-i (dat.), populo-d (abl.), and at a very early age that of populo-m. The absence of written standard works of such a national importance as to penetrate into the masses of a people, and to check their inclination towards misapplying or neglecting inflections which in progress of time have lost their inherent meaning, and therefore appear cumbersome, accelerate the change of the inflective system into the analytical. The demand for a precise and, so to speak, material expression of those manifold relations appropriated to inflections in ancient languages, is felt more keenly with the waning distinctness of the latter; and sadden political revolutions, such as the invasion of Italy by Teutonic tribes, or the conquest of England by the Normans, interrupting the influence of the privileged classes of a nation, bring the struggle to an issue, and give the ascendency to the popular movement. Articles, prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, take in modern languages the place of inflections; and notwithstanding that these are not entirely destroyed, they have a precarious existence, and are in danger of being finally supplanted by the tendency to represent every distinct relation of words to each other by a distinct expression. The application of the s as a mark of the possessive case becomes more and more limited in modern English, and the mistaken effort to supersede this relic of Saxon inflection by the substitution of the pronoun his, has only been defeated because it proceeded from learned pedants, and not from the people. The termination n as a sign of the plural in French verbs (aiment, aimaient), may be called almost a dead letter, only traditionally preserved in spelling. The loss of inflections has deprived modern languages of the wonderful simplicity and power of the ancient tongues, and the periphrastic mode of expression they have adopted prevents them from arranging all the parts of a sentence with the same degree of liberty. On the other hand, they have gained in perspicuity. After all they have only reversed the process of the combination of pronominal and auxiliary words with others; but by placing them in front, the attention of the hearer or reader is called at once to the particular modification of every possible shade of a given thought.

INFLECTION, in optics. See DIFFRACTION.

INFLORESCENCE (Lat. in, and floresco, to begin to flower), in botany, a term employed to designate the flowers of a plant considered collectively and with reference to the manner in which they are arranged and the succession in which they are developed. The flower-bud being a modified leaf-bud, and the parts of the flower modified leaves, it might be expected that the inflorescence should exhibit a close correspondence with the ramification of the plant, but the modification in the parts immediately concerned in the production of flowers is so great, that this is far from being the case. A most important classification of kinds of inflorescence is into centrifugal and centripetal (q.v.). When the flowering axis produces only a single terminal flower, the inflorescence must be regarded as of the centrifugal kind. The terms used to designate more specifically the different kinds of inflorescence are numerous. The principal of them are explained under separate heads, as CATKIN, CONE, CORYMB, CYME, PANICLE, RACEME, SPIKE, UMBEL, etc. But it is to be regretted that such terms are still used somewhat vaguely or carelessly, even by very eminent botanists, or in such various senses, that the inflorescence of the same plant is often described by one term in one botanical work, and by another term in another. And hence arise confusion and difficulty, not entirely to be ascribed to the endless variety which is exhibited in nature.

INFLUENZA, one of the class of diseases to which the term zymotic (q.v.) is now applied, has been long recognized by medical writers, although its name, borrowed from the Italian, is comparatively modern in this country. Cullen called it catarrhus e contagio, but although, in most cases, it closely resembles ordinary catarrh it presents certain points of difference from that disease. In addition to the ordinary symptoms of catarrh, there is a sudden, early, and very striking debility and depression of spirits. This early debility is one of the most marked and characteristic signs of influenza. The mucous membranes (especially the pulmonary membrane) are much affected. The tongue is white and creamy, the sense of taste is lost, there is no appetite, the pulse is soft and weak, the skin, although at first hot and dry, soon becomes moist, and the patient complains of pains and soreness in various parts of the body.

In simple, uncomplicated cases, convalescence supervenes in the course of a week or sooner, but influenza is very frequently conjoined with bronchitis or pneumonia, in which case it is much more persistent and dangerous.

Influenza affords an excellent example of an epidemic disease, a whole community being often attacked in the course of a few hours. From this it may be inferred that the occurrence of this disease is connected with some particular condition of the atmosphere, but what that condition is, is not known. Not unfrequently, influenza follows close upon a sudden thaw; sometimes it is preceded by thick, ill-smelling fogs. One hypothesis refers the complaint to some change in the electrical state of the air; and one of the latest and most probable conjectures regarding its exciting cause is that of Schönbein, who refers it to the presence of an excess of ozone (q. v.) in the atmosphere. Like cholera, influenza generally follows a westerly direction, or one from the s.c. towards

· Infusoria.

the n.w., and its course seems to be altogether independent of currents of air, as it frequently travels against the prevailing wind.

The most important point in the treatment of influenza is not to bleed the patient, or in any way to depress his vital powers. He should be kept in bed; his bowels should be gently opened; his skin slightly acted upon, if dry; and, if the cough be troublesome, a mustard-poultice should be applied to the chest, and an expectorant mixture prescribed. In persons of weak or broken-down constitutions, ammonia, beef tea, and wine and water must be given from the outset. The debility that often remains for a considerable period after the establishment of convalescence, is best met by the preparations of iron and quinine.

Few diseases increase the death-rate to such an extent as influenza, more, however, in consequence of the great number of persons who are attacked in a severe epidemic, than in consequence of its danger in individual cases.

INFORMA PAUPERIS, a term used when a person is allowed to sue as a pauper-i.e., by getting leave to dispense with paying the fees of court and other costs.

INFORMATION, in English law, is used in several senses. In criminal law, an information filed by the attorney-general or master of the crown office is a substitute for an ordinary indictment, and is resorted to only in cases of such misdemeanors as tend to disturb the peace or the government-for example, as libels on judges, magistrates, or public officers, bribery at elections, etc. This information is usually called a criminal or an ex officio information, and the defendant is put on his trial in the same way as under an indictment. There are other informations, such as those called quo warranto, to test the validity of an election or appointment to a public office, etc. An information by the attorney-general in chancery is a suit on behalf of the crown or government as to any misapplication of a public charity, or on behalf of an idiot's or lunatic's property. The term is also commonly used to denote the written statement often but not invariably made on oath before a justice of the peace, previous to the issuing of a summons or complaint against a person charged either with a crime or an offense punishable summarily. There are also informations in the court of exchequer to recover penalties for breach of the revenue laws. The term is not now used technically in Scotland, except in cases of difficulty, when the court of justiciary orders informations-i.e., written arguments-on both sides.

INFORMATION (ante), in law. In the U. S. courts actions for minor offenses, such as attempts to evade the revenue laws, etc., sometimes proceed upon information; but no capital or infamous offense can be prosecuted otherwise than by indictment. In several of the states all offenses which are misdemeanors may be prosecuted upon information, but in the case of felonies indictment is necessary. In Pennsylvania and some other states it is optional to proceed by either method. Information is often the form of proceeding in civil cases. By this process a person filling a civil office may be brought into court to show by what authority he assumes to exercise the functions thereof, with a view to his displacement in case it can be shown that his authority is insufficient, and that the office belongs to another. If an unincorporated association assumes corporate powers, it may be ousted by this process, while a legal corporation may be thus arraigned for a violation of its charter or any infraction of law.

INFORM'ER, in English law, the person who sues for a penalty under some statute. In many statutes which define offenses-not criminal but savoring of criminalityencouragement is often given to strangers to come forward and prosecute the offense, by giving them power to sue for the penalty for their own benefit in whole or in part. This practice has been much resorted to in modern statutes on most subjects. In England, when the informer sues in such an action, it is called a penal or qui tam action; but, in general, the penalty is now recoverable before justices of the peace in a summary way. In suits in chancery, which require to proceed in the name of the attorney-general, the informer is called a relator. In Scotland, an informer is the party who sets the lordadvocate in motion in criminal prosecutions; and the iord-advocate is bound to give up the name of the informer, who is liable in case of malicious prosecutions. See QUEEN'S EVIDENCE.

INFUSIONS, or INFUSA. These terms are applied in pharmacy to aqueous solutions of vegetable substances obtained without the aid of boiling. They are usually prepared by digesting in soft water (which may be either hot or cold, according to circumstances) the sliced or powdered substance in an earthenware vessel fitted with a cover. Cold water is preferable when the active principle is very volatile, or when it is expedient to avoid the solution of some ingredient in the vegetable which is soluble in hot, but not in cold water. For example, in preparing the infusion of calumba, cold water is preferable, because it takes up the bitter principle (which is the essential ingredient), and leaves the starch matter undissolved. In most cases, however, boiling water is employed. Infusions are preferred to decoctions when the active principle volatilizes at a boiling heat, as in the case of essential oils; or when ebullition readily induces some chemical change, as in the case of senna (q.v.).

Infusions may also be prepared by percolation (q.v.), a process which is extensively employed in the preparation of tinctures. When thus prepared, they are less liable to decay than when prepared on the old system.

Infusoria.

INFRALAPSARIANS, or SUBLAPSARIANS, in ecclesiastical history are those who hold that God, for his own glory, permitted the fall of man without positively fore-ordaining it. According to this view God determined to create the world, to permit the fall of man, and from the mass of fallen men elect some to eternal life and leave the residue to suffer the just punishment of their sins. Opposed to these are the Supralapsarians who hold that the fall of Adam, with all its evil consequences, was predetermined from eternity, that election and reprobation precede the purpose to create and permit the fall. According to this view, God, to manifest his grace and justice, creates some to be saved and others to be lost. The majority of the members of the synod of Dort, composed of delegates from all the reformed churches on the continent and in Great Britain, and of the Westminster assembly, were Infralapsarians. Such was Augustine, and such have been those who adopt his system of doctrine.

The

INFUSO'RIA, a class of the sub-kingdom of animals called protozoa (q.v.). term, originally almost synonymous with animalcules (q.v.), is now very much restricted in its signification. It was first used by Otto Friederich Müller, and was adopted by Cuvier, who made the infusoria the last class of radiata (q v.). But their radiated structure is by no means established. found.-After Müller (1773-86), the next to devote himself to the special study of the No distinct trace of nervous matter has been infusoria was Ehrenberg, the publication of whose work on them (1837) was the commencement of a new era in the history of this branch of zoology, which has since been prosecuted with great industry by Dujardin, Stein, Lachmann and Claparède, Cóhn, Lieberkühn, Rymer Jones, and others. Many of the organisms included by Ehrenberg, as by previous naturalists, among infusoria, are now generally regarded as vegetable (see DESMIDEA and DIATOMACEÆ); whilst others, as the cercaria (q. v.), have been discovered to be immature states of entozoa. general consent, widely separated from the polygastrica of Ehrenberg, for which aloue The rotifera (q.v.) are now also, by very the term infusoria, although not unobjectionable (see ANIMALCULE), is retained; the term polygastrica (Gr. many-stomached) being rejected, because it expresses a view of the structure of these creatures which is generally deemed erroneous. Agassiz has gone the length of proclaiming an opinion, not received by other naturalists, that the infusoria are all immature or larval worms. events probable that many are those of immature creatures; it is certain that some But of the forms at present known, it is at all species assume very different forms at different stages of their existence; and the whole life-history of no one species is fully known.

Some of the infusoria are large enough to be individually visible to the naked eye, but most of them are altogether microscopic. Their bodies are composed of sarcode, a glutinous diaphanous substance, of which the outer layer sometimes forms a more or less resisting integument. The body has some well-defined form, of which the varieties are very great in different species. Many are furnished with cilia, the motion of which carries them with great rapidity through the fluid in which they live, and by means of which also currents are created in the fluid to bring food to the mouth. Tue mouth is very generally surrounded or largely provided with cilia. Whether these organs are under the control of will, or maintain their motion without will or even consciousness on the part of the creature, like the cilia of the epithelium in higher animals, is not determined. There is an analogy in favor of the latter opinion, and many appearances -which, however, the phenomena of zoospores, etc., teach us to regard as possibly deceptive-in favor of the latter. Some infusoria, instead of cilia, have a few slender filaments, which they agitate with an undulatory movement; others move by contractions and extensions of their bodies. Some have stiff bristle-like organs, which they use as feet for crawling on the surfaces of other bodies; and some have hooks, by which they attach themselves to foreign bodies.

All infusoria have a distinct mouth, and many have also an anal opening, sometimes near the mouth, sometimes at the opposite extremity of the body. Between these, Ehrenberg imagined that he could trace an intestine, straight in some, variously bent in others, with which along its course many small stomachs are connected; whilst in the infusoria having only one aperture, he supposed all the stomachs to open immediately from it. But other observers have failed to find the canal and stomachs, although Eurenberg's experiments, by means of fluids colored with indigo and carmine, have been often repeated. And it seems probable that the food taken into the mouth is simply conveyed into the midst of the soft gelatinous substance of the body, being formed into pellets as it passes from the mouth through a kind of gullet in the firmer integument. The food of infusoria consists of organic particles of various kinds, and different species have been remarked to show a preference, like those of higher animals, for particular kinds of food. Many of them feed on microscopic plants and on other infusoria. Their great use in the economy of nature is probably to consume organic particles, the decomposition of which would otherwise be baneful to all life, and the return of which by decomposition to their primitive elements would diminish the fertility and wealth of the world. The numbers of the infusoria are prodigious. They are found in all parts of the world, and both in fresh and salt water, in stagnant ponds and ditches, in mineral and hot springs, and in moist situations. Any infusion or other liquid containing vegetable or animal matter, if left exposed to the atmosphere, is sure U. K. VIII.-2

Ingersoll.

to be full of them. Their multitudes are so great that leagues of the ocean are sometimes tinged by them. Some, which, instead of swimming freely, like most of their class, become surrounded with a gelatinous substance, are found adhering together in masses sometimes 4 or 5 in. in diameter, although the individual animals are so small that a cubic inch of the mass may contain 8,000,000 of them. The infusoria contained in a single cup of putrid water may exceed in number the whole human population of the globe!

The organization of the infusoria is still very imperfectly known. There appears in many of them a cavity not far from the mouth, the contractile space-variously regarded as a cavity without proper walls, or as a vesicle-from which branches sometimes radiate through the substance of the body, and which, being capable of contraction and expansion, is regarded by some as the center of a kind of vascular system. It is with considerable probability regarded as furnished with proper walls. There is also, probably in all the infusoria, another organ, evidently of great importance, although its use is still uncertain, called the nucleus, which is usually roundish or a little elongated, sometimes much elongated and band-like. It is enveloped in a membrane, and is more compact than the surrounding substance. In the multiplication of these animals by spontaneous division, a fission of the nucleus always takes place. Each of the halves becomes furnished with a complete mouth, set of cilia, and other organs. The division, in the same species, is sometimes longitudinal, sometimes transverse, perhaps alternately longitudinal and transverse. The multiplication of the infusoria in this way is extremely rapid. A paramecium, well supplied with food, has been observed to undergo division every 24 hours, from which would result 16,384 individuals in a fortnight, or 268,435,456 in four weeks. Reproduction also takes place by gemmation; buds or gemmules forming on the outer surface of the body, and gradually assuming the shape of the parent animal, although they do not attain to their full size till after separation. More extraordinary is another mode of reproduction by encysting or encapsulation. The animal contracts, closes its mouth, becomes surrounded by a viscid secretion, and finally by a membrane, becomes attenuated, and dissolves, all but the nucleus, into a mere liquid containing granules, which afterwards form within the cyst a new infusorium, different in form and appearance from that by which the cyst was produced. The metamorphoses of the infusoria have been traced to a certain extent in some kinds, but not fully in any. Whether any truly sexual propagation takes place has not been perfectly ascertained, although the observations of Balbiani have made it extremely probable as to some of them. A reproduction, different from all that has yet been mentioned, has been observed to take place in some, by the formation of internal germs, to which this character has been ascribed, but the subject is still involved in doubt; nor is it improbable that there may be amongst these minute creatures a production of real eggs, which has hitherto eluded observation.

In the integument of some infusoria, very minute fusiform bodies are thickly imbedded, called trichocysts, which are capable of throwing out long filaments. Their use is unknown, although they are supposed to be urticating organs. The filaments are thrown out when the animal is subjected to annoyance by the drying up of the liquid in which it lives, or by the application of some irritating liquid.

INFUSORIA, FOSSIL. See DIATOMACEÆ.

INGALLS, RUFUS, b. Maine, 1820: graduated at the U. S. military academy, 1843: joined the army. In 1845 he was transferred to the dragoons, and in 1848 to the quartermaster department with the rank of capt. In 1854 he became col, and assistant quartermaster-general. In 1860 he was ordered from the frontier, where he had long served as quartermaster with his regiment, to Washington, where, at the beginning of the rebellion, 1861, he was appointed chief quartermaster of the volunteers to provide for the supplies of the army of the Potomac and of the army of the James. He discharged his duties with great ability, fidelity, and promptness. Mar. 13, 1865. he was made maj.gen. of volunteers for meritorious services in the rebellion; and in 1867 became quartermaster of the military division of the Atlantic at New York.

INGAUNI, a tribe dwelling on the mountains and seacoast of Genoa in the 1st and 2d c. B.C. They were active in the wars between the Romans and Ligurians, and were allies of the Carthaginians in the second Punic war. They were regarded as a distinct tribe in the time of Pliny and Strabo, but after the battle with Emilius Paulus, 181 B.C., in which they lost 15,000 men, very little was heard of them. The town Albenga, then called Albium Ingaurium, was their capital.

ING BERT, or SANCT INGBERT, a t. of Germany, in Bavaria, in the Palatinate, on the Roorbach, noted for its coal, iron, and quicksilver mines, and the manufacture of iron, glass, and chemicals. Pop. about 9,0CO.

IN'GELOW, JEAN, b. England, 1830; published her first volume, Poems, in 1863. and gave evidence of original talent. Among the poems in this volume, “Divided," "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," and the "Songs of Seven," have been very popular. Her subsequent poems have sustained her reputation as a highly gifted poeť. She has published also several prose works, as Studies for Stories; Home Thoughts and Home Scenes; Of the Skelligs, and others. Her verses are characterized by simplicity