Cherokee. The ruling tribe was the Muscogee, whose language was the court language, besides which there were the Alabama, Hichitee, Koasati, and others of the same Muskhogean stock, with the Uchee and Natchez (q.v), and a considerable incorporated band of Shawano. The Seminole of Florida were an offshoot from the Muscogee confederacy. They were agricultural, but warlike, living in villages of log houses, plastered on the outside with clay, and arranged in a rectangle about a central space reserved for public ceremonies, chief of which was the annual 'busk,' or green-corn dance. In the Colonial wars, and during the Revolution, they generally adhered to the English side. They made a treaty of peace with the United States in 1790, but in 1813, instigated by the English, again took up arms against the Americans, beginning hostilities by the terrible massacre of Fort Mims. They were completely crushed by General Jackson in a brief but bloody campaign, in three battles in which they lost respectively 200, 300, and 800 warriors killed. Utterly broken, the Creeks were compelled to sue for peace, which was granted only on submission to a peremptory demand' for the surrender of more than half their ancient territory. Other cessions quickly followed, until in 1832 they sold all their remaining territory and agreed to remove beyond the Mississippi to their present habitat in the Indian Territory. Like the other Southern tribes, they were divided in sentiment during the Civil War, and suffered severely in that struggle. Under the name of the 'Creek Nation' they conduct an autonomous government, similar in form to that of the Cherokees (q.v.). The nation numbers 16,000 citizens, of whom about two-thirds are of pure or mixed Creek blood.

CREEL'MAN, JAMES (1859-). An American editor and newspaper correspondent, born in Montreal, Canada. He was first associated with the New York Herald (1877), and eventually became editor of its London and Paris editions. During the war between China and Japan, he was correspondent for the New York World, and in the Turco-Greek War did similar work for the New York Journal, which paper he also represented at Santiago during the Spanish-American War, where his gallant conduct met with wide and well-deserved recognition. He was a voluntary aide on General Lawton's staff during the Philippine insurrection. His publications include: On the Great Highway: Wanderings and Adventures of a Special Correspondent (1901), and Eagle Blood (1902).

CREEP (from creep, AS. créopan, Icel. krjapa, OHG. chriochan, Ger. kriechen, to creep). A miner's term for the depression which takes place in underground workings from the removal of beds of coal or ore. Masses of the coal-seam, like huge pillars, are left by the miners for the support of the superincumbent strata; the pressure, however, of these beds is so great that, in course of time, the roof gradually sinks, or, as is more frequently the case, because of the roof consisting of hard rock, the softer shale pavement rises up, until the intervening spaces between the pillars, left by the removal of the coal, are filled up. A consequent depression takes place in the beds above, as also an alteration of the surface level. But this, being so gradual, is seldom noticed, except when it is made evident from the

accumulation of surface-water, or in districts where railways pass over the coal-fields. The term is also used in geology to designate the movement of soil or rock outcroppings down a slope.

CREEPER. A name very generally applied to any bird, especially if of small size, which seeks its food by running or creeping about upon the the members of the family Certhiada and espetrunks of trees. It is more properly applied to cially of the genus Certhia. They have a slender, arched, and pointed bill; a long, narrow, sharppointed tongue, jagged near its tip; the tail rather long, and the tips of the tail-feathers firm

and pointed, extending beyond the webs. The feet

are rather slender; the hinder toe about as long as the other toes. Of this conformation of feet stiff feathers of the tail being employed for supand tail great use is made in climbing trees, the port. They display great agility in clambering. often back down, about the branches, and probe

very cranny for hiding insects, or insect eggs. They make their nests in crevices in trees, old woodpeckers' holes, etc. Although the family is large, it is doubtful if the genus contains more than one true species, the common streaked-brown creeper (Certhia familiaris), a bird found in all wherever wood abounds. temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, In the United States the word creeper is very generally used as a

part of the name of several warblers, as the pinewhite creeper (Mniotilta varia). In Jamaica the creeper (Dendroica pinus) and the black-andname is given to a small species (Certhiola Bakamensis), otherwise known as banana-bird, because HONEY-CREEPER; TREE-CREEPER. it frequents and nests in the banana-trees. See

CREEPING PLANTS. Plants whose stems run close to the surface of the soil and root at intervals. See STEMS; VEGETABLE PROPAGATION. CREESE, or CREASE. See KRIS. CREFELD, kra'felt. See KREFELD.

CREIGHTON, kra'ton, MANDELL (18431901). An Anglican prelate and historian. He was born at Carlisle, Northumberland, graduated from Merton College, Oxford, in 1866, with the highest honors, and continued there as tutor until 1873. In 1870 he became deacon, in 1873 priest, and in 1875 assumed the college living at Embleton in his native shire. He was appointed rural dean of Alnwick in 1879, honorary canon of Newcastle in 1882, and professor of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge in 1884. In 1891 he became Bishop of Peterborough and remained there until 1897, when he was transferred to the see of London and was made a Privy Councilor. He represented Emmanuel College, Cambridge, at the celebration of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of Harvard University (1886), and in 1896 attended the coronation of Czar Nicholas II. as delegate of the Church of England. As Bishop of London, which office he retained until his death, Dr. Creighton, although known as a High Churchman, acted with signal skill and impartiality in the numerous delicate questions of theological interpretation which confronted him. Besides his History of the Papacy (5 vols., 1882-94), which is an authority, his Age of Elizabeth (1876) and Cardinal Wolsey (1888) deserve especial mention. He was also the founder and first editor of the English Historical Review.

CREIL, krâ'y'. The capital of a canton and an important railway junction in the Department of Oise, France, on the Oise, 32 miles north of Paris by rail. The parish church dates from the twelfth century; the ruined twelfth-century Transition Church of Saint Evremont is situated on an island in the river; and there are remains of a royal castle of Charles V. Hardware, copper, machinery, and pottery manufactures are its chief industries, and it has an increasing rivertransit trade. Population, in 1901, 9125.

CREIZENACH, kri'tse-näG, THEODOR ADOLF (1818-77). A German poet and literary historian. He was born in Mainz, the son of Michael Creizenach, a famous Hebrew scholar, studied at Giessen, Göttingen, and Heidelberg, and was one of the founders of the Jewish Reform Society in Frankfort-on-the-Main. He embraced Christianity in 1854, and in 1863 was appointed professor at the Frankfort Gymnasium. He was a versatile writer, his poems, Dichtungen (1839) and Gedichte (1851), being distinguished by simplicity and an elegiac char acter. His publication of the correspondence between Goethe and Marianne von Willemer (1878) is a valuable contribution to the literature on the great poet.

CRELLE, krølle, AUGUST LEOPOLD (17801855). A self-educated German mathematician. He was born at Eichwerder, near Wriezen, and was an architect by profession, but is chiefly known as the founder of the Journal für reine und angewandte Mathematik (Berlin, 1826). This journal has given expression to many of the greatest mathematical developments of the nineteenth century. Abel's proof of the impossibility of solving the general equation of the fifth degree by algebraic methods appeared in the first vol ume. Steiner, the greatest geometrician since the time of Euclid,' was a leading contributor, and Möbius intrusted to it the publication of his most important researches. Crelle wrote quite extensively on algebra, trigonometry, the theory of numbers, the theory of functions, and various subjects of mathematical physics. His chief works are Versuch einer allgemeinen Theorie der analytischen Facultäten (1825); Encyklo pädische Darstellung der Theorie der Zahlen (1843); Sammlung mathematischer Bemerkungen (1820-22); Elemente der Geometrie und ebenen und sphärischen Trigonometrie (1826-27).

He was also editor of the Journal der Baukunst. CRELLINGER, krā'ling-er, AUGUSTE (DÜRING) (1795-1865). A German actress, born in Berlin. She made her first appearance at the Court Theatre, Berlin, May 4, 1812, and subsequently became one of the most famous actresses of her day, and frequently appeared as a star at the leading theatres of Germany, as well as in Saint Petersburg. Sappho, Lady Macbeth, Iphigenia, Phädra, and Adelheid in Götz von Berlich ingen were some of her favorite rôles. She excelled also in comedy parts, and was distinguished alike for her beauty, numerous histrionic accomplishments, and consummate artistic train

ing.

CREMA, krāʼmå. A city in the Province of Cremona, north Italy, situated on the right bank of the Serio, 33 miles (by the winding railway) southeast of Milan (Map: Italy, D2). The cathedral has a Romanesque façade, and the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie has inter

esting frescoes. The circular Church of Santa Maria della Croce, built in 1490, has an octagonal interior adorned with paintings by Campi. The chief products of the district are wine, fruit, and cheese; lace, silk, and linen goods are manufactured. Crema was founded by the Lombards in the sixth century and suffered much during the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. It was besieged, taken, and destroyed by Frederick Barbarossa in 1159-60. Population (commune), in 1881, 9111; in 1901, 9755.

CREMATION OF THE DEAD (Lat. crematio, from cremare, to burn; connected with Goth. hauri, coal, Icel. hyrr, fire). The process of disposing of the bodies of the dead by reducing them to ashes. Three methods of disposing of the bodies of the human dead have prevailed since the earliest times: simple exposure; burial in the earth, in caves, or in artificial tombs; and cremation. Among the factors which have determined which of these methods should be adopted by a nation or race have been physical conditions, such as the character of the soil and climate and the abundance or scarcity of fuel; sanitary considerations; and religious beliefs. Only the most uncivilized tribes have practiced simple exposure, depending on the elements and the wild beasts to dispose of the bodies of their dead. Such was the practice of the early Colchians, who, we are told, hung dead bodies on the limbs of trees, while the Syrians abandoned their dead to wild animals.

The

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD AMONG THE ANCIENTS AND AMONG UNCIVILIZED TRIBES. Of the two methods employed by civilized nations, cremation and burial, the former is the one originally prevalent among the Indo-European races. graves of North Europe, throughout the Bronze Age, contain, not skeletons, but only urns for the The Egyptians, on reception of funeral ashes. the other hand, embalmed their dead; the Jews

laid them away in sepulchres; and the ancient

as well as the modern Chinese buried them in the earth. The Chinese, influenced by religious doctrine, now, as of old, insist on properly placed graves in their own land, and for this reason corpses are sent home from California. They do not have cemeteries specially set apart for the burial of the dead, but may bury them anywhere, and the frequent occurrence of these hallowed spots, which may not be desecrated, has proved a serious obstacle to railway projects. The dry, hot climate of Egypt made the embalming proeess possible, and the scarcity of fuel made it less expensive than burning. The same natural cause, lack of fuel, may have led to the practice of burial among the Jews and other tribes. Among the ancient Persians the bodies of the dead were exposed to the elements, as is the practice of the modern Parsis, or followers of Zoroaster. It

is, however, probable that in some instances, especially in the case of kings, burial with a coating of wax was allowed. Many of the early American Indians burned their dead and disposed of their ashes in various ways, while the ancient Greeks practiced both cremation and burial, the former being introduced by the Phrygians, and burial by the Egyptians. Among the Romans, cremation was the general practice during the latter days of the Republic and through four centuries of the Empire. See BURIAL for a description of burial practices of ancient nations.

While natural causes, undoubtedly, had a great influence in determining the method of disposal, especially in very early times, religious belief in the resurrection of the physical man has usually been the chief factor which has caused the spread of the custom of interment rather than the more sanitary method of disposal by fire. The Egyptians, Jews, Mohammedans, and Christians all believe more or less fully in the physical resurrection of the body; and the question arises, whether cremation does not impair the prospect of a future life. With the spread of Christianity, burial was substituted for cremation, both in the heart of the Roman Empire and among the converted pagans on its outskirts.

Cremation was once common in England, and was but slowly supplanted by inhumation. The same is true of the Gallic and Germanic races. It is said that Charlemagne, in his zeal for Christian burial, punished the act of cremation with the death penalty. Cremation is still practiced in India and among some other Oriental nations. In Japan the Shinto sect practices burial and the Monto sect cremation.

CREMATION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. In Great Britain the revival of the practice of cremation was discussed as early as 1658, when Sir Thomas Browne published his Hydriotaphia, or Urn Burial. In 1817 Dr. J. Jameson wrote a sketch on the Origin of Cremation. For many years during the early part of the century, Dr. Lord, Health Officer for Hempstead, continued to agitate the subject, but no practical results were achieved. In 1797 cremation was discussed by the French legislature under the Directory. But it was in Italy that the first practical steps were taken toward reestablishing the practice of cremation. From 1852 on, the subject was agitated in the various national scientific congresses and through their efforts the incineration of human dead was made legal by the introduction of a provision for that purpose in the National Sanitary Code. The process has since rapidly grown in favor in Italy, and, besides the private crematories, there are now municipally owned crematories in Rome, Milan, Florence, and Venice.

In Germany the subject was discussed at scientific meetings almost as early as in Italy, but greater legal difficulties were encountered here than in Italy. In 1874 the body of an English woman was reduced to ashes in a Siemens furnace constructed at Dresden, and this was the first cremation scientifically performed; but the Government of Saxony, after two incinerations, forbade the practice. Soon after, legal right to construct a crematory was secured in the neigh boring Duchy of Gotha, and for twelve years this was the only place in Germany where incineration could be practiced. During the closing decade of the nineteenth century crematories were put in operation in Heidelberg, Hamburg, Jena, and Offenbach.

In France, after much agitation, a law was passed in 1887, legalizing the practice. Soon after the city of Paris erected a crematory where cremation is compulsory for certain classes, including all unclaimed hospital dead, the remains from dissecting tables, and dead bodies from streets and sewers. In England, Sir Henry Thompson is widely known as the leader of the present agitation in favor of cremation. In 1874

he organized the 'Cremation Society of London, whose object is to introduce “some rapid process of disposal which cannot offend the living and shall render the remains absolutely innocuous.” Accordingly a crematory was erected at Woking, near London, and here the first incineration took place in March, 1885. Since that date several other crematories have been put in operation, including those at Manchester and Glasgow. In 1900 the city of Hull completed a crematory for general use, the first municipally owned crematory among English-speaking people. Its ar rangements will be found described later in this article.

The first place in the United States where the subject of cremation was systematically agitated was the city of New York, in 1873, but it was not until 1881 that a crematory was built for the use of its population. In the meantime, a few cremations were made in private furnaces at Washington, Pa., and Salt Lake City. During the closing decade of the nineteenth century the movement grew rapidly in popularity, and the United States now ranks first in the number of optional annual incinerations. At the close of this article are appended tables showing the location of crematories and annual number of incinerations for the whole country.

ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST CREMATION. Within the last few years the conviction has rapidly spread that a more rapid and sanitary method of disposal must be substituted for burial. especially in the great centres of population. To find enough land for burial purposes is becoming a more and more difficult matter. It has been estimated that 24 acres are annually required for the burial of the dead of London. If 4000 corpses are crowded into an acre, it has been estimated by the same authority that, at the mortality rate of 20 per 1000, New York, with a population of 3,000,000, requires 17% acres annually to bury its dead. A similar computation of population, death-rate, and space required for burial will show that, unless the custom is changed, much of the available space in the vicinity of all large cities will eventually be required for burial purposes.

The sanitary objections to burial are of still greater importance than the economic difficulties. Through pollution of the air and water the presence of a crowded cemetery may become a menace to the health of the community. The development of the germ theory of disease has added to the realization of this general danger the specific fear that, in the case of those who die from communicable diseases, the germs may be conveyed through the ground from a dead victim to a living host. To what extent this is possible is still a mooted question among bacteriologists. Elaborate experiments, conducted by Pasteur, would seem to show that, in the case of animals at least, disease germs are conveyed from a buried to a living animal. It is a well-known fact that the purifying organisms, for the most part, must work near the surface of the ground, where there is a plentiful supply of oxygen, and that ordinarily bodies are buried too deep and with too many impedimenta about them to be readily acted upon. In 1900 Sir Henry Thompson, in an address before the Cremation Society of England, advocated that while cremation remained optional for ordinary cases, it should be made obligatory when death is due to such transmissi