arrangement and careful disposition of the folds. There was no other garment of the men while in the city which in any way concerned their appearance, as the only leg-coverings known were bandages or wrappers, not unlike those worn to-day by the peasantry in some parts of Europe. On the other hand, the toga prætexta, which was worn by certain officials, and even by some priests, had a 'purple,' that is a dark crimson border, and the trabea seems to have been a sort of cloak with still more elaborate stripes, including perhaps one made entirely of red cloth, which generals were allowed to wear on the day of their triumph. It is probable, however, that in this last usage the military cloak of red was worn during the triumphal procession, that being the one occasion when the soldiers of the Republic were allowed to appear within the walls with their arms and military trappings. The women were dressed as simply as the men, wearing over the tunica merely a garment called the stola, which replaces for them the toga of the men, and when the woman of rank went abroad, usually in a litter, a shawl like garment called the palla might also be added. That which makes the peculiar stateliness of the dress seen in female statues of the early Empire is the contrast of the folds of the long tunica, reaching the floor, nearly covering the feet, and forming a strongly marked base, as it were, for the whole figure, while the more loosely folded stola above it seems to reinforce the lines of the

undergarment. A veil of more or less thin and floating material covered the head, and could be brought around to the front to hide the face at pleasure. It must be constantly kept in mind that the idea of beauty in dress was simply uniform whiteness and many skillfully contrived folds; the whiteness was kept up by the use for woolen garments of the most elaborate system of cleansing applied by the fullones, or cleansers, and, for the folds of the drapery, highly trained experts-body servants who knew their business -were employed. It is evident how great an effect these peculiarities of dress had upon the art of sculpture.

In all the above discussion of costume, one thing is very noticeable-the absence of anything like tailoring, except, perhaps, among the Chinese. The clothes of the Greeks and the Romans, like those of the people of the Pacific Islands, always approximated to the ideal of an uncut, unsewed, unaltered piece of textile fabric; square or oblong, as in the himation, chlamys, sagum, or paludamentum; semicircular or semi-oval in shape, or approximately so, as in the toga, or simply sewn down one side so as to make a tubular garment of one piece of stuff, as in the later chiton, and in the tunica. A curious reproduction of this characteristic of ancient costume exists among the wilder Arabs, the Bedouins of the desert, and the horsemen of the uplands. They wear a shirt, indeed, and this is of thicker stuff, and covers the body more completely than what we know by that name, but apart from this their covering is almost wholly a matter of unaltered or scarcely altered pieces of woolen. Perhaps two breadths of the narrower stuff are sewn together to make the haick, or, as in the north of Africa, a square of striped woolen stuff is caught up in the middle of one side so as to form a sort of hood, as in the burnous; or, as in the aba or abayeh, the square of stuff may

have its two outer edges folded over toward the middle, so that the two edges meet or nearly meet, and then two openings are made in the two outer folds where the stuff is actually creased, which serve as armholes, so that the square blanket resembles an overcoat. But in all this there is absolutely no fitting of the piece of stuff to the body. It is a heavy woolen blanket, which is adapted more or less to the shoulders so as not to slip off, but is not otherwise altered in any way, and might cover a man or a woman, and a person of any stature. What is curious about this costume is the enormously heavy woolen dress worn in the desert and under the semi-tropical sun. It is evident that nothing but a heavy material is expected to keep off the heat of the sun or the burning wind of the desert; and therefore a man who wears only the long shirt, and has the legs and feet, arms and neck absolutely naked, will pile two or three of these heavy woolen things upon his shoulders and head. The result of this arrangement is that the only decoration sought for is in the beauty of two or three colors arranged in stripes of different widths, and broken more or less by the carrying of threads of different colors across the stripes, in the way of counter-charging of heraldry. A much greater development of design by stripes alone is in the cotton dhurries of India. The aba may indeed be further adorned by very simple embroidery in woolen thread.

The first appearance of any tendency to fit the garments to the person among nations more western than the Chinese is probably in the leg-coverings of the Persians and Syrians, as represented in Grecian and Greco-Roman art, and yet these garments are of extreme simplicity and there is no appearance of tailoring in any modern sense in connection with them. They are merely loose trousers, gathered at the ankles, or sleeved tunics; and their use seems to have come from the mountain regions of Asia Minor and the shores of the Caspian Sea. The barbarians of Europe, Gauls, Scandinavians, and Germans, made up suits of clothes in a not dissimilar way; but it does not seem that their example affected the Greco-Roman world very much.

The beginning of change is to be looked for in the Byzantine Imperial epoch. From a time as carly as the seventh century A.D. there is a constant increase in the number of garments worn, and in the elaboration of their shape and their combination, while at the same time the costliness and splendor of the stuffs are in no way diminished, and the custom begins which was destined to have so much effect on the costume of later times in Europe, the sewing of jewels, mounted in slender rings, or chatons, of gold or silver gilt, to the material. Sometimes smaller fragments of glittering material of no value were used in this way, as in a later time pieces of mirror were used throughout the lands influenced by Persian decorative ideas. In the Byzantine Empire the dress of the officials shows a certain disposition to follow early Roman traditions, but only in the general shape of outer garments and to a certain extent in their names. The general aspect of a member of the Imperial family, or an officer of the Court, as it is seen in the mosaics of Ravenna, or in the illuminated manuscripts of the time, is altogether different from that of higher antiquity. The robes reached to the feet, they were closely sewed up, and not very loose

medallions, and painted enamels of the time, exist in some quantity; and they agree in telling the most extraordinary tale of splendid extravagance in the dress of both sexes. Embroidery was loaded upon bodice and doublet, or was dispensed with only when a very rich brocade was employed; and lace, or its earlier forms of cutwork and drawn-work, and needle embroidery in pierced patterns like filigree, were used with freedom. The circular ruff, projecting like a dish on which the head seems to lie, appears, but is not yet as popular as the broad and flat laced collar, sometimes lying on the shoulders, sometimes standing stiffly out horizontally, or for women in steep, upward slope behind the head and neck. The fashion of bombasted thigh-coverings for the men is identified in artistic history with the reign of Henry IV. of France, but it did not last very long, being replaced by the loose, short trousers of about 1625 and after. No costume in the modern sense is perhaps more graceful and spirited at once than the dress of the gentlemen of the time of Louis XIII., which, with its short trousers, the stocking below covering the calf of the leg, which was concealed by the boots commonly worn out of doors, the doublet, reaching a little below the waist, and worn loose, generally unbuttoned in front and showing the shirt in its full folds, the short cloak, worn on the left shoulder, except when it was gathered around the body, the flat hat, with very broad brim, and soft falling feather, and the broad, loose collar, is a complete and graceful translation into form of those ideas which the modern world has conceived-ideas absolutely contrary to those of antiquity. Simplicity and grace have given place to picturesque combination of small details; and here is the new theory, perfectly put into practice. The reign of Louis XIV. had but little influence on this dress of men, except to stiffen it and make it rigid and hard, but the dress of women improved on the whole in tastefulness throughout the seventeenth century, and as late as 1670 was introduced that admirable costume which we identify with Madame de Sévigné, a skirt not very full, over which was worn a short upper skirt, open in front; a bodice fitting snugly, but not involving very tight lacing; a stomacher, but not excessive in its length; sleeves reaching the elbow, and accompanied by lace ruffles, which partly shroud the lower arm; the bodice cut low, but not to excess, and a cape worn over the neck and shoulders on occasion of going out of doors. The same thing, in simpler stuffs and in graver colors, was worn by the wives of the wealthier bourgeois, and this is the dress which we identify with the women of Holland and the English Puritans. It is preserved for us in a great number of paintings, and in the prints from Hollar's engravings; and it has impressed itself upon modern designers as the most complete type of womanly costume which we know; but that is because the richer dress of the time is impossible to realize nowadays-it seems non-human, as if of fairyland. The eighteenth-century dress in England, which was at times popular and acceptable in decorative design, is a modification of it, not for the better. The fop of 1750 is less beautifully dressed than the muguet of 1650, and the ladies of 1775, with their enormous hoops, far less charming in appearance than Madame de Sévigné a hundred years earlier.

The French Revolution in 1789 brought in a number of strange vagaries in dress, red and white striped waistcoats, stockings, striped blue and white in horizontal rings, white cravats wound round and round the neck until they reached the point of the chin, while at the same time the women wore the lightest and thinnest costume possible, in fancied imitation of the Romans. Cocked hats of exaggerated shape for the men alternated with steeple-crowned hats with curly brims; while the female costume was finished by the most elaborate pile of curls and crimps, crowned by an enormous cap, either simply of muslin and lace, or with these combined with a sort of hat half concealed with feathers, flowers, and ruffles of lace. The momentary prohibition of elegances of this sort under the Revolution led to a change in the dress of both sexes, which was not to be temporary, except in details. Thus the dress which we call that of the Empire,' the famous 'pink nightgown,' girded immediately below the breasts and hanging thence to the ankles, but so close that a woman could hardly walk and was utterly unable to step across a gutter, was worn with low shoes and with an unprotected neck, while the cold of winter was met by a pelisse, generally worn open in front and affording merely shelter for the shoulders and back, however richly it might be furred. The men fell immediately into the simple and not impressive dress of a time when the civilian was of little account, and any man who was elegant in his aspirations found some excuse to wear a military or official uniform. The civilian dress was then merely a waistcoat, over which was worn a long-skirted coat, and the pantalon, or tight-fitting breeches reaching to the ankle instead of the knee. The large and loose white cravat still continued. From these dresses all our modern fashions have followed, succeeding one another through such changes as this-the coat with a round skirt, projecting much from the hips, from 1830 to 1840; the double-breasted dress coat (habit), from 1840 to 1850, or thereabout, often blue,

with gold buttons, often claret-colored or brown; the very high coat-collar, worn with either or both of these fashions, but disappearing about 1835; trousers succeeding the pantalon, and worn rather close-fitting, and with an immense spread. or 'spring,' at the bottom, covering the boot almost to the toes, succeeding the strapped trousers of an earlier time, and succeeded in turn by the 'bags,' as the English slang term very properly has it, which, since 1860, have remained in fashion throughout western Europe and the nations of European settlement, and constitute certainly the ugliest article of costume hitherto discovered by mankind. women, now that we approach our own time, and the changes of every year become known to us, has a relative importance so diverse, with so many and such almost imperceptible changes, that a consideration of this is left for the article FASHION.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The dress of

A general work, containing 500 plates, most of them colored, and an elaborate commentary with an analysis of each plate, as well as some essays showing considerable insight, is Racinet, Le costume historique (6 vols., Paris, 1888), published both in folio and in a more convenient small quarto.