reason, called carburetted iron. The proportion of carbon has not been ascertained with much precision. It is supposed to amount, at an average, tooth part. Steel is so hard as to be unmalleable while cold; or at least it acquires that property by being immersed, while ignited, in a cold liquid: for this immersion, though it has no effect upon iron, adds greatly to the hardness of steel. It is brittle, resists the file, cuts glass, affords sparks with flint, and retains the magnetic virtue for any length of time. It loses this hardness by being ignited, and cooled very slowly. It is malleable when red hot, but scarcely so when raised to a white heat. It may be hammered out into much thinner plates than iron. It is more sonorous; and its specific gravity when hammered is greater than that of iron-varying from 7.78 to 7-84. Steel is usually divided into 3 sorts, according to the method in which it is prepared; as natural steel, steel of cementation, and cast steel. The latter is the most valuable of all, as its texture is the

most compact, and it admits of the finest polish. It is used for razors, surgeons' instruments, and similar purposes. Steel is chiefly employed in the manufacture of swords, knives, and cutting instruments of all sorts used in the arts; for which it is peculiarly adapted by its hardness, and the fineness of the edge which may be given to it. — (Thomson's Chemistry; and see IRON.)

STETTIN, a city of Prussia, on the left bank of the Oder, about 36 miles from its mouth, in lat. 53° 23′ 20′′ N., long. 14° 33′ E. It is well built, strongly fortified, and had a population, in 1838, of 31,100.

Stettin is the seat of an extensive and growing commerce; and is now, indeed, the principal port of importation in Prussia. She owes this distinction mainly to her situation. The Oder, which flows through the centre of the Prussian dominions, is navigable as far as Ratibor, near the extreme southern boundary of Prussian Silesia; and is united, by means of canals, with the Vistula, the Elbe, the Spree, &c. Stettin is, consequently, the principal emporium of some very extensive and flourishing countries; and is not only the port of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Breslaw, &c., but also of Berlin. A railway from the latter to Stettin is nearly (1843) completed. Hence, at the proper seasons, its wharfs are crowded with lighters that bring down the produce of the different countries traversed by the river, and bring back colonial products, and other articles of foreign growth and manufacture. Vessels of considerable burden, or those drawing above 7 or 8 feet water, load and unload, by means of lighters, at the mouth of the river, at Swinemunde, the out-port of Stettin, on the east coast of the isle of Usedom, in lat. 53° 55′ N., long. 14° 15′ 15′′ E. Formerly there were not more than 7 feet water over the bar adjacent to Swinemunde; but the harbour of the latter has recently been so much improved, by the construction of piers and breakwaters, dredging, &c., that it is now the best on the Prussian coast, and admits vessels drawing from 18 to 19 feet water. A lighthouse has been erected at the extremity of the eastern pier. Stettin is a free port; that is, a port into and from which all sorts of goods may be imported and reexported free of duty. If goods brought through the Sound be imported at Stettin, and entered for home consumption in the Prussian states, they are charged with 24 per cent. less duty than if they had been imported through any other channel. This is intended to reimburse the merchant for the Sound duties, and to encourage importation by this direct route in preference to that carried on through Ham. burg and Embden. There is a great wool fair in the month of June each year.

Monies, Weights, and Measures, same as at Dantzic, which see. The Bank of Berlin has a branch at Stettin, and there is also an insurance office.

Imports and Exports.-The principal articles of import at Stettin are sugar, coffee, dye-woods, wine, iron, and hardware, oil, tallow, cotton and cotton goods, herrings, spirits, linseed, coal, salt, &c. The principal exports are corn, especially wheat; spirits, rapeseed, spelter, timber, &c.; bones, manganese, fruits, &c.

Account of charges incurred by a British ship, of about 200 tons burden, at Swinemunde and Stettin:

Navigation Stettin is the principal shipping port in the Prussian dominions. In 1841 there belonged to it 200 ships, of the burden of 49,892 tons, being about a third part of the shipping belonging to Prussia.

Port Regulations.-All vessels are prohibited entering Swinemunde, unless forced by stress of weather, without previously beaving-to for, and receiving, a pilot on board. But when compelled to enter without a pilot, the master is to observe the signals made from the beacons erected on the eastern and western moles as follows:

Notice.

1. When pilots cannot put to sea, and captains of ships are nevertheless resolved to enter the harbour, a red flag will be hoisted on the direction beacon of the eastern mole.

2. The captains will then steer until they find themselves, S.E. by S. on the compass, from the lighthouse placed on the utmost point of the east mole, taking care to keep the outermost great white buoy, situate on the end of the western ground in a depth of 16 feet, on the starboard, and the next black buoy, in an oblique line towards the lighthouse, on the larboard.

3. In that situation of the vessel the two new beacons cover themselves in the direction of S S. E., and this course, keeping

the two beacons completely covered, the captains sail into the port up to the second landing berth of the eastern mole, four cables' length beyond the lighthouse, keeping off the mole half a cable's length.

4. At that place, the captains taking care to remain a little South, are expected by the pilots to go on board of their vessels. 5. On entering the port all the white buoys are to remain on the starboard side of the vessel (see 2.'.

6. For facilitating the finding and keeping the directions given in this instruction in case the ouoys should have been removed by sea, or taken up on account of the advanced senson, signals will be given with a red flag from the direction beacon on the eastern mole.

7. The captains must follow the signals in so far as to steer to that part where the flag is hoisted perpendicularly.

8. Should there be no pilot at sea, and no flag hoisted on the beckoning beacon, the captains must not attempt to enter the port at all, but either anchor in the roads or remain at sea. Stettin, November 12, 1835.

The following regulations apply to all the Prussian ports: -Notifications to Captains of Ships respecting Importation and Exportation by Sea in the Prussian Dominions:

As soon as a ship arrives in the road, and has complied with the police regulations of the port (which are communicated to her), the captain repairs to the custom-house, and delivers a complete list or manifest of cargo. This list bears the title of a chief declaration or manifest, and in preparing it, the following conditions are to be observed:

If the whole cargo be not destined for the port, that part which is to proceed further with the ship, is to be placed under a distinct division.

The goods accompanied with bills of lading are entered in rotation after each other for every bill of landing.

The account (or statement) is made out in kind and quantity, agreeable to those measures and divisions adopted in the tariff for the payment of duties.

If there be a number of packages of similar articles, and each package contains an equal quantity, they may be entered summarily, according to their number and size; and a general statement of the contents will suffice.

If the contents of the packages be different, then the contents of each must be specified."

The luggage of the passengers must be marked as such in the report. If it consist of general travelling luggage, it will be enough to state the particular boxes or parcels; but if it consist of goods, then must these be stated, according to number and kind.

The individual property of the captain, with the exception of the provisions, is stated like other tradesmen's property, with

Table of Fees payable to the Brokers of Stettin, as fixed the 8 January, 1834.

Account of the Exports of Corn and Grain from Stettin in each of the 9 Years ending with 1842.

Account of the Value of the Imports and Exports at Stettin for each of the 9 Years ending with 1842.

Account of the Quantities of the principal Articles exported from Stettin by Sea in 1842, distinguishing the Quantities shipped for the U. Kingdom and all other Countries, with their aggregate Value.

Of the total value supplied by England. products.

of the imports, amounting, in 1842, to 1,624,400, goods valued at 515,6601. were These consisted principally of iron, salt, coal, herrings, sugar, and other colonial

STOCKHOLM, the capital of Sweden, situated at the junction of the lake Maelar with an inlet of the Baltic, in lat. 59° 20′ 31′′ N., lon. 17° 54' E.; a well-built, handsome city. Population, in 1889, 83,885. The entrance to the harbour is intricate and dangerous, and should not be attempted without a pilot; but the harbour itself is capacious and excellent, the largest vessels lying in safety close to the quays. Stockholm possesses from a third to a half the foreign trade of Sweden; but this is confined within comparatively narrow limits. The government has long been accustomed to endeavour to promote industry by excluding foreign products; latterly, however, this system has been considerably relaxed, with great advantage to the trade of the country, and the well-being of the people. Iron, timber, and deals form the great articles of export. Swedish iron is of very superior quality, and is rather extensively used in Great Britain; the imports of it amounting, in ordinary years, to about 16,000 tons exclusive of 600 tons of steel. In addition to the above leading articles, Stockholm exports pitch, tar, copper, &c. The timber is inferior to that from the southern ports of the Baltic. The imports principally consist of colonial products, cotton, dye stuffs, salt, British manufactured goods, hides, fish, wine, brandy, wool, fruit, &c. In seasons of scarcity corn is imported, but it is generally an article of export.

Pilotage.-Vessels bound for Stockholm take a pilot at the small island of Oja. Lands-hort lighthouse is erected on the southern extremity of this island, in lat. 58° 44' 30 N., lon. 17° 52′ 15′′ E. It is painted white, and is furnished with a fixed light, elevated 158 feet above the level of the sea, which may be seen, under favourable circumstances, 5 leagues off. The signal for a pilot is a flag at the fore-topmast head, or firing a gun.

Account of the principal Articles imported into and exported from Stockholm in 1842.

Money.- Accounts are kept here, in Gottenburg, and generally throughout Sweden, in paper money, consisting of rixdollars banco: 1 rixdollar being equal to 48 skillings, and 1 skilling to 12 rundstycks. The exchange with London is at about 12 rixdollars banco per 17., so that the rixdollar is worth about 1s. d. sterling. Rixdollars banco may be exchanged for specie rixdollars at the rate of 2 the former for 1 of the latter. But there are very few coins, except of copper, in circulation; the currency consisting almost wholly of notes, varying from 5 skillings to 500 rixdollars banco.

Weights and Measures. The victuali or commercial weights are punds, lispunds, and skippunds; 20 punds being equal to 1 lispund, and 20 lispunds = 1 skippund; 100 lbs. Swedish commercial weight = 932 lbs. avoirdupois 42 kilog. = 87 lbs. of Hamburg.

The iron weights are 3-5ths of the victuali or commercial weights; 20 marks 1 mark pund; 20 mark punds = 1 skippund; and 7 skippunds = 1 ton English. Hence, 100 punds Swedish iron weight = 75 lbs. avoirdupois, and 100 lbs. avoirdupois = 133 113 lbs. Swedish iron weight.

In corn measure:

1 Ton of Liverpool common salt

=

7 tuns Swed.

Pro forma Invoice of 150 Shippounds or 20 Tons of Iron shipped from Stockholm for London in 1843.

Account of the official Value of the Articles imported into and exported from Sweden in 1841.

Regulations as to the working of Mines in Sweden. — The mines of Sweden, though inconsiderable as compared with those of this country, are a considerable source of national wealth. They are principally situated in the central provinces, which have no fewer than 261 out of the 586 mines said to exist in the kingdom. Swedish iron is of a very superior quality, and that of the Danemora mines is especially well fitted for conversion into steel; but, owing to injudicious restrictions and the want of coal, the production in Sweden is not supposed (including what is licensed and what is made for home consumption without a licence) to exceed 85,000 or 90,000 tons bar iron, of which about 70,000 are exported. In 1839 we imported 17,049 tons of Swedish iron. The copper mines produce, in all, only about 750 tons a year; the metal is not so good as that of England, and is impregnated with iron. Fahlun, the chief mine, has long been in a declining state, the number of workmen at present employed not exceeding 500. The works of this mine are conducted entirely by water power, and are remarkable for their completeness; connected with them is a manufactory of sulphuric acid. The smelting furnaces and iron works are licensed to produce certain quantities, some being as low as 50 tons, and others as high as 400 or 500 tons; and some fine bar iron works have licences for 1,000 tons each. These licences are granted by the College of Mines, which has a control over all iron wo. ks and mining operations. The iron masters make annual returns of their manufacture, which must not exceed the privileged or licensed quantity, on pain of the overplus being confiscated. The college has established courts of mines in every district, with supervising officers of various ranks. All iron sent to a port of shipment must be landed at the

public weigh-house, the superintendent of which is a delegate of the college; so that it is impossible for an iron master to send more iron to market than his licence authorises. It is true that sales are made to inland consumers at the forges, of which no returns are made out, and in so far the licences are exceeded; but it is not supposed that the quantity so disposed of exceeds a few thousand tons a year. Every furnace and forge pays a certain annual duty to the crown. Its amount is fixed by the college when the licence is granted; and care is taken not to grant the licence to any one unless he have the command of forests equal to the required supply of charcoal without encroaching on the supply of this material required for the existing forges in the neighbourhood. As the supply of pig-iron is limited to the quantity licensed to be made, the college, in granting new licences to bar-iron works, always takes into consideration how far this may be done without creating a scarcity of pig-iron. Hence, the erection of new forges depends - 1st, on having a supply of charcoal, without encroaching on the forests which supply your neighbours; and 2d, on the quantity of pig-iron which the college knows to be disposable. The courts of the mines decide all disputes that arise among the irou masters regarding the exceeding of their licences, encroachments, &c.; an appeal to the college lying from their decision, and ultimately to the king in council, or to the supreme court of the kingdom.

It is needless to dwell on the impolicy of such regulations. No doubt it is quite right for government to interfere to prevent the waste and destruction of the forests; but, having done this, it should abstain from all other interference, and leave every one at liberty to produce as much iron as he may think proper. Mines of any importance are usually held by a society of shareholders. Some of them are only worked occasionally; and, as the labour is performed by peasants, who live ostensibly by husbandry, it is impossible to form any correct estimate of the numbers engaged in mining industry.

STOCKINGS, as every one knows, are coverings for the legs. They are formed of only one thread entwined, so as to form a species of tissue, extremely elastic, and readily adapting itself to the figure of the part it is employed to cover. This tissue cannot be called cloth, for it has neither warp nor woof, but it approaches closely to it; and for the purposes to which it is applied, it is very superior.

1. Historical Sketch of the Stocking Manufacture. It is well known that the Romans and other ancient nations had no particular clothing for the legs During the middle ages, however, hose or leggins, made of cloth, began to be used; and at a later period, the art of knitting stockings was discovered. Unluckily, nothing certain is known as to the individual by whom, the place where, or the time when, this important invention was made. Howell, in his History of the World (vol. iii. p. 222.), says, that Henry VIII. wore none but cloth hose, except there came from Spain by great chance a pair of silk stockings; that Sir Thomas Gresham, the famous merchant, presented Edward VI. with a pair of long silk stockings from Spain, and that the present was much taken notice of; and he adds, that Queen Elizabeth was presented, in the third year of her reign, with a pair of black knit silk stockings, and that from that time she ceased to wear cloth hose. It would appear from this circumstantial account, that the art of knitting stockings, or at least that the first specimens of knit stockings, had been introduced into England from Spain about the middle of the 16th century; and such seems to have been the general opinion, till an allusion to the practice of knitting, in the pretended poems of Rowley, forged by Chatterton, made the subject be more carefully investigated. The result of this investigation showed clearly that the practice of knitting was well known in England, and had been referred to in acts of parliament, a good many years previously to the period mentioned by Howell. But it had then, most probably, been applied only to the manufacture of woollen stockings; and the general use of cloth hose shows that even these had not been numerous. There is no evidence to show whether the art is native to England, or has been imported.—(See Beckmann's Inventions, vol. iv. art. Knitting Nets and Stockings.)

It is singular that the stocking frame, which, even in its rudest form, is a very complex and ingenious machine, that could not be discovered accidentally, but must have been the result of deep combination and profound sagacity, should have been discovered so early as 1589, before, in fact, the business of knitting was generally introduced. The inventor of this admirable machine was Mr. William Lee, of Woodborough, in Nottinghamshire. He attempted to set up an establishment at Calverton, near Nottingham, for the manufacture of stockings, but met with no success. In this situation he applied to the queen for assistance; but, instead of meeting with that remuneration to which his genius and inventions so well entitled him, he was discouraged and discountenanced! It need not, therefore, excite surprise that Lee accepted the invitation of Henry IV. of France, who, having heard of the invention, promised him a magnificent reward if he would carry it to France. Henry kept his word, and Lee introduced the stocking frame at Rouen with distinguished success; but after the assassination of the king, the concern got into difficulties, and Lee died in poverty at Paris. A knowledge of the machine was brought back from France to England by some of the workmen who had emigrated with Lee, and who established themselves in Nottinghamshire, which still continues to be the principal seat of the manufacture. (See Beckmann's Inventions, vol. iv. pp. 313-324.; and Letters on the Utility and Policy of Machines, Lond. 1780.) During the first century after the invention of the stocking frame, few improvements were made upon it, and 2 men were usually employed to work 1 frame. But in the course of last century, the machine was very greatly improved. The late ingenious Mr. Jedediah Strutt, of Derby, was the first individual who succeeded in adapting it to the manufacture of ribbed stockings.