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long, and the straw was inferior. From these results Mr. Sinclair deduces the following rules for growing Carolina rice in the Central Provinces: (1) The soil must be of loose clay and sand mixed; (2) it requires manuring; (3) it must be clear of weeds when the plants are put down; (4) transplantation is the most satisfactory process; (5) the seed for transplantation must not be thrown in too thick, or the plants get long and weak and take a long time after transplantation to acquire vigor; (6) the plants must be put down 8 inches apart; (7) after transplanting there must not be too much water in the field; in fact, it must be kept as a mere puddle until the plants erect themselves, and then water may be let on or retained in the field sufficiently to cover all but 2 inches of the tufts; and, after the plants are 1 foot high and well in the soil, the more the better.

It is unfortunate that a fuller and more detailed account of Mr. Sinclair's experiments is not given.

For the experiments of 1870 fresh seed was obtained and left Charleston in perfect condition in December, 1869, being distributed among the provinces in May, 1870. On the whole, the experiments were more successful than in previous years, yet there were many failures, real or feigned, and in some cases these were due to want of system. In Bengal nineteen successful plantings are recorded by Mr. Liotard, which, however, show nothing of interest beyond the experiments already quoted except a few remarks such as the following:

This grain is most peculiarly liable to the attacks of beetles.

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The Caro

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lina rice suffered somewhat from blight, whereas the native did not. One crop has been gathered and the stalk is throwing out a second crop, and a third crop, it is expected, will be reaped before the plants die out. The Assamese grow their paddy with so little trouble and get such good crops that they will be slow to abandon its cultivation even to insure a more profitable return for their labor. The chief advantage in Bengal is the presence of so many European gentlemen in the interior, but they do not cultivate rice or any other ordinary staple on a large scale, and only grow samples by way of experiment.

The Oudh experiments failed altogether. In the northwestern provinces the experiment proved a failure in nine districts, a partial success in seven, and a decided success in two. It was remarked that

The absence of any scientific system or knowledge on the part of those who tried the experiment and the inability of district officers to supply this defect or to devote to the experiment the care and attention necessary to render the trial considered as one of the suitability of this rice to the northwestern provinces, generally barren of results.

In the Punjab successful results were obtained in two districts out of seven. It was remarked that—

No one who has tasted Carolina and Indian rice can hesitate in considering that the latter is far the most palatable; and it is not to be wondered at that the people consider the Carolina rice inferior to the produce of country seed, especially when it is remembered that rice cultivation has attracted the attention of the people in the Punjab for centuries and that a greater number of varieties of rice than of any other crop is known and commonly recognized.

On August 7, 1871, the Government of India published a review of the results thus far obtained, saying that, although the Government was not yet in a position to decide authoritatively as to the exact merits of the Carolina rice as compared with the several indigenous varieties

and although the opinions of different officers and the reports of the results obtained in different localities were very discordant, there appeared to be generally a balance in favor of the superior utility of the American plant, the advantages of which might be summed up as follows:

(1) The Carolina paddy plant is more hardy, as it is less easily injured by gales and heavy rains, which entirely prostrate the Indian kinds. It requires a less amount of water than the Indian plant; it suffers less from drought and also (according to some authorities) from floods.

(2) The produce of this species of rice is much greater than that of the country kinds (a) In respect of its yield in grain it gives a much larger gross weight of rice in the husk, and, the husk being thinner, it yields a larger proportion of clean rice to rice in husk, and, when ripe, it does not drop its seed in consequence of a little rain or wind, as the Indian varieties generally do; (b) the straw is longer and stronger than that of Indian rice, and can be utilized for thatching and other purposes for which the Indian straw is almost useless. In Burmah it is said to be greedily devoured by cattle.

(3) It ripens earlier and in a much shorter time than the indigenous varieties, so that in Burmah and in some places on the continent of India it would be possible to obtain two crops of Carolina for one of the common Indian rice.

(4) When properly attended to it appears to improve rather than to deteriorate by cultivation in India.

On the other hand the following are the disadvantages of the Carolina rice:

(1) Its quality (according, at any rate, to Indian ideas) is somewhat inferior. It has little flavor and scarcely any scent. It is believed to contain somewhat less nutriment, is less liked by native consumers, and commands at present a lower price among them.

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(2) The grain is much more difficult to thrash out.

(3) The straw is coarser, and, in some localities, is said to be less liked by cattle. In regard to this latter opinion a report from Madras in 1869 states: "It yields a larger amount of straw of a sort also more succulent and palatable than that of ordinary paddy." (The word "paddy" is used in India to designate the growing plant as well as the grain in the husk. It is derived from pádi, the Malay name of the rice plant.) In regard to the first of the above objections a report from Madras says: "The seed was sold for one anna a measure; the same price as for native seed, but afterward rose to two annas a measure."

Other reports from Bengal, Travancore, and Cochin were generally favorable to Carolina rice.

In conclusion [says Mr. Liotard], it may, in a few words, be asserted that Carolina paddy is in every way superior to native paddy, but that it is the growth of a higher system of cultivation than is generally prevalent in this country, which system is required to bring it to perfection and to prevent its deterioration. It is in the early stages of growth more delicate and requires more care, especially in sowing (so as to prevent its being sown too thickly) than is usually the case here. The seed is also liable to deterioration.

Further trials were made in India in 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. An account of them presents the same record of failures and of partial or

* See Table I, page 11.

complete success, but shows only a few new points of interest. Failures were due to destruction by heavy rains or by birds, rats, and insects, to the drought, to want of interest, and to causes unexplained, as in previous years.

Results go to show that the native rice will thrive under circumstances which would be highly predjudicial to Carolina rice, which must have a healthy soil resting on a moderately porous subsoil through which the irrigation water can pass. The roots of the Carolina plant are longer, showing that the plant feeds deep in the soil, while the short root of the native plant shows it to be a surface feeder.

It is evident, therefore, that land with a healthy surface only about 3 inches in depth can never produce a good crop of Carolina paddy, though it may produce fair crops of the country variety. In such soils the Carolina grows well enough until its roots begin to pass down into the unhealthy undersoil, when it sickens, turns yellow, and dies, while the country paddy, whose roots never reach this unhealthy undersurface, may thrive and yield fair results.

Deterioration of Carolina seed undoubtedly takes place when the crop is grown under very unfavorable circumstances, but this is likewise so with the seed of wheat and barley in India. Under suitable circumstances there is no reason why it should deteriorate. Much Carolina seed, however, becomes mixed with inferior native seed from carelessness on the part of the ryots. "Carolina rice is more subject to injury by salt water than native rice."

Although the Carolina method of cultivation was described in 1869 to Indian planters, very few of them seem to have followed it, most of them simply ignoring it and pursuing their own favorite methods, wholly foreign to its requirements. "Indian rice lives on the rainfall and Carolina rice upon irrigation." The crop should be tried along the canals, whereby a really valuable return might be made and money now sunk in canals might be saved.

Carolina rice grown in India is said to become changed in appearance and even to furnish several varieties of seed. It is recorded in the U. S. Department of Agriculture Report for 1877 that in the year 1871 several samples of seed were selected in Georgetown, S. C., for shipment to India, and that subsequently specimens of its Indian production were returned to the Department at Washington, whence they were sent to the planters who had furnished the seed, and who pronounced the seed so changed as to be hardly recognizable. This was in all probability due to the differences of soil, climate, and cultivation by which the plant had been affected in India. It may also have been due to careless cultivation or to accidental admixture with deteriorated "volunteer" rice, both from Carolina and native sowings, or to hybridization between Carolina and native rice when growing in adjacent fields, which might improve native varieties but would have a contrary effect upon Carolina seed. It is not recorded that any especial experime..ts in hybridization have ever been made in India.

Upon the whole, the attempted introduction of Carolina rice into

India can not be called a success. The seed seems to have been too widely and indiscriminately distributed. It might have been more satisfactory had but one or two well managed experiments been made in each district and a trustworthy record kept of the results. periments, however, such as they are, have been recorded as data for future guidance, so that if this introduction is ever again undertaken previous mistakes may be avoided. There can, however, be no doubt that the experimental cultivation so widely carried on has diffused a supply of fresh seed over a large area of country, but whether or not the produce of this seed has been mixed up with and lost in the country varieties it is impossible to ascertain.

CEYLON.

This island does not produce rice for export, but imports largely from India. The average yield is comparatively small, being not more than 15 bushels to the acre, and crops are often lost by inundations or by carelessness. The methods of cultivation are variable and similar to native methods in India, very little manuring being done and instruments being of a primitive character. The upland rice of Ceylon is said to be more nutritious than any which is imported and the home product generally seems to be preferred in the island.

Interesting experiments in introducing Carolina rice into Ceylon were commenced in 1868, and are related by Mr. Liotard. The múdaliyar, or officer of Siyané Koraté, one of the provinces of the island, received from India a single pound of fresh Carolina seed and sowed it early in February, 1868. The drought was severe and he watered his field from a well. The plants grew well and were reaped in May, but produced only 2 pounds of paddy. These 2 pounds were sown October 2, 1868, and reaped in January, 1869, the yield being 3 pecks of paddy; fresh plants sprang out from the stalks left after the first reaping and produced a second crop which gave a quarter of a bushel more, making in all 1 bushel of paddy (weighing probably 45 pounds) from 2 pounds of seed. The whole bushel was carefully preserved and again sown November 6, 1869, and early in February, 1870, yielded 20 bushels. Out of these 20 bushels 1 bushel was sown June 1, 1870, in one field, and 8 bushels in another field in October, 1870, and the remaining 11 bushels were given to twenty-one cultivators for trial. From the first sown field 24 bushels were reaped in October, 1870, and the produce again distributed gratuitously to cultivators. From the second field, planted with 8 bushels October, 1870, 160 bushels were reaped early in February, 1871, all of which was distributed to various cultivators all over the island.

The Mudaliyar's own account of his experiment is as follows:

I have experienced that for the successful cultivation of this paddy it is necessary to have soft and continually moist ground. In fields near the banks of rivers or streams, or at the foot of hills, no artificial manuring is necessary, but they only

require a good weeding when the plants are about a foot high. If this paddy is to be sown on a poor, sandy soil, it ought to be manured, either with bone dust, cow manure, ashes, or "keppetiya" leaves (which are to be had in abundance in almost all jungles) buried in the fields. But transplanting in either soil would yield crops of double the quantity expected. Out of my fields, without weeding or manuring, it gave me twentyfold and by weeding, bone dust, manuring, and transplanting, sixtyfold. This paddy ought to be sown very sparsely, so that the trees may not be closer than 6 inches from each other, as they shoot out a far larger number of young plants than the ordinary paddy, more particularly in the best soil; and ii sown closer than described the paddy trees grow thin, fall off, and the whole crop gets spoilt. The excellence of this paddy will commence to manifest itself weekly after the sixth week, until they are reaped, which should not be endeavored to be done, as with the ordinary paddy, at once, as young plants of different growth are springing up from every paddy bush. They ought to be reaped as the paddy ripens from time to time. The stumps of these paddy trees are larger and stronger, the leaves broader, thicker, rough, and more dark green than ordinary paddy; the trees never fall down; they grow to the height of 4 and 5 feet; and when they commence to blossom they blossom at once; and when they commence to ripen they ripen at once, which is not the case with the paddy of this country; and they give different crops at different times, as the plants shoot out at different ages; and this paddy answers for all harvests in Siyané Koralé, namely the Maha, Sala, and Mutes harvests. According to the paddy cultivation in the Siyané Koralé, if this paddy is to be sown for the Maha harvest, they should be sown between October 1 and 5; if for the Sala harvest, on June 1 and 10; if for the Mutes harvest, on any early day in De. cember, as the high water permits. If they are sown early for the Mutes harvest they can be reaped before the rising of the river. This paddy stands water and ail other effects of the climate better than all the qualities of the native paddy. I found great difficulty in inducing the natives to try and cultivate this paddy, and they were very much disinclined to do so until they had seen the result of my cultivation, after which they flocked in for handfuls of seed paddy from me, and I think that two years hence there will be no other paddy cultivation in Siyané Koralé but that of Carolina paddy. This paddy is gradually improving in size after each cultivation of it, and they are the largest paddy now in existence in Ceylon, and it looks more like wheat than paddy, the husk being thinner and the paddy heavier than the paddy of this country, and when its rice is boiled for the table, it is much more white, gluey, and more heavy food than the Ceylon rice.

SIAM.

Until 1856 there existed a law in this country forbidding the expor tation of rice until a three years' supply should be stored for home consumption, but in that year the law was repealed and a consequent impetus given to rice cultivation by the demand for Siamese rice from other countries, so that now Siam bids fair to be one of the largest rice producing and exporting countries of the world.

The demand for land for rice-growing, in which not only natives, but also thousands of Chinese are engaged, has caused the construction of canals for the double purpose of irrigation and communication through sections of the country which had lain uncultivated for centuries, thus opening to cultivation vast tracts of land previously idle. The surface of these plains is level and the water in the canals rises and falls with the tide, and irrigation is easily performed. The soil is said to be so fertile that the rice "almost grows spontaneously." At present, how

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