ring the dry season of eight months, the rainy season being devoted to smelting the ore. The workings are open pits and cuts; and the material is conveyed away to be washed, water being collected by means of dams and reservoirs. After the washing the ore is calcined, leached in water (to remove sulphates of iron and copper), smelted in shaft furnaces with charcoal, drawn into a purifying receptacle, and poled. The resulting tin is the best in the market. The government furnishes engineers, superintendents, and furnaces; all the rest is supplied by the workmen (Chinese), who receive about $5 09 for each 100 lbs. of cast tin. The "Straits" tin comes from the British settlement of Malacca, and from various points on the Malay peninsula and the islands between it and Java. Drought and troubles with the Malays have temporarily reduced the supply from this source. Its quality varies according to the locality of the mines and the skill of the metallurgical treatment; but it is usually less pure than Banca tin. -Metallurgy of Tin. The tin ore found in drift or alluvium is usually purer than that in veins, because the arsenides, sulphides, and metallic salts are decomposed and carried away by the action of water. The veinstuff as mined is usually rock or gangue containing disseminated ore (sometimes as little as of 1 per cent. of tin), and requires a careful preliminary concentration, the difficulty of which is enhanced by the presence of heavy minerals (wolfram, bismuth, &c.), which must be removed to secure a pure metal as the result of smelting. Connected with the mechanical concentration there is usually a calcination, to convert heavy sulphides into oxides, which can be more easily washed away. The apparatus of concentration comprises launders, plane tables, buddles, percussion tables, jigs, &c. (See METALLURGY.) The theory of the reduction of tin ore is simple. The stannic oxide must be deprived of its oxygen by contact with carbon at high temperature, and reduced to metallic form in fusion, while the earths and metallic oxides accompanying it must be collected in the slag. In practice the operation is embarrassed by several difficulties. One of these arises from the high temperature necessary for the reduction of the stannic oxide, at which temperature other metallic oxides, which should pass into the slag, are also partially reduced and enter the metallic bath, or cause "salamanders" or 66 scaffolds" by chilling in the furnace. Hence the necessity of removing lead, bismuth, copper, antimony, arsenic, zinc, iron, tungsten, molybdenum, &c., as far as practicable, before smelting. There is also danger that the stannic oxide, which plays the part of an acid toward many bases, and of a base toward acids, may pass partly into the slag as ferrous or calcic stannate, or stannic silicate. The oxidability and volatility of tin are also sources of loss, to avoid which the shaft furnace is so constructed as to remove the metal, once reduced, as soon as practicable from the influence of the heat and blast. The earthy ingredients of the ore, in which usually silica predominates, tend to form "stiff" (not easily fusible) slags; and, rather than add fluxes to counteract this evil, at the cost of an increase of the amount of zine carried into the slag, it is common to smelt with little or no extra flux, producing a scarcely fused slag, in which more tin is mechanically caught and retained than is chemically combined with silica or the bases. This slag may be remelted or treated by mechanical concentration, to extract the tin which it contains, in fine metallic grains. Wolfram, which cannot be completely washed out, either with or without preliminary roasting, and which if present in the smelting charge goes partly into the slag and partly as tungsten into the metallic tin, is sometimes removed by a preliminary smelting of the ore with sodic carbonate or sulphate (Glauber's salt), by which a soluble tungstate of soda is formed, which can be leached out. Muriatic acid will leach out from roasted tin ore the chlorides of iron, copper, and bismuth.-The melting of the concentrated and purified tin ore may take place in a reverberatory or in a cupola furnace. The former is advantageously employed where coal is cheap and good. It loses less tin by oxidation than the shaft furnace, in which the blast acts more or less on the tin, and it requires less fuel for the production of a given amount of tin. Zirkel says the reverberatory consumes for each part of tin produced 14 part of coal and loses 5 per cent. of tin, while the shaft furnace consumes 3 parts of coal and loses 15 per cent. of tin. But when the ore is impure, the reverberatory furnishes an inferior tin. The greater product is due to the better opportunity afforded for the grains of tin to settle from the slag into the bath, which in the shaft furnace must be quickly removed to prevent oxidation from the blast. But this oxidizing blast, on the other hand, removes more completely arsenic, bismuth, &c. The principal ingredients added in the reverberatory are reducing agents (carbon), and sometimes, to counteract predominant silica in the ore, small quantities of slacked lime and fluor spar. This furnace is used in England, and also in Australia. In the cupola furnace, which is employed on the continent of Europe and in the Indies, the additions, aside from the fuel, are chiefly stanniferous slags and residues from the same process, which serve to prevent the fine dressed ore from packing too closely in the furnace to permit the passage of the blast. The cupola furnaces are made comparatively small in section, and contracted near the tuyeres, in order to secure the necessary temperature; and to prevent the reduction of iron oxides, they are made low (in Saxony, 1.88 to 2.82 metres; in Banca, 1.26 to 2.82 metres). The hearth slopes at the bottom from the rear wall toward the breast, and the fused material, flowing down this slope, passes con tinually under the front wall and into a receptacle before it, cut in stone and lined with clay and charcoal powder. Here the metal separates and settles, away from the influence of the blast. Such a shaft furnace (Saxon) is shown in the accompanying section, in which a is the rough masonry of granite or gneiss; b, the inner wall, of granite; c, the front wall; the hearth; 9, the tuyere (with two nozzles); h, the "eye," or opening in the breast, through which the molten material escapes; i, the fore hearth, built with granite, k, and clay and pow a varieties of East Indian tin, renders it crumbly, and hinders its union with other metals. The refining of crude tin is conducted in England as follows: The blocks of tin are set on the hearth of a reverberatory, and liquated at low temperature, by which process a purer tin is obtained in a kettle, while an alloy consisting mainly of less fusible metals (iron, wolfram, copper, &c.) remains on the hearth. The liquid tin in the kettle is further purified by "poling;" that is, green wood or damp coal is submerged in it, causing by the generation of gases a violent ebullition, which continually changes the surface of the bath exposed to the air, and promotes the oxidation of the foreign substances. These are skimmed off, and the bath is allowed to settle, when there is a further deposit of heavy metals (iron, copper, &c.) on the bottom. After settling, the tin is drawn off in three portions, the upper layer being refined block tin, the middle common tin, and the lowest an impure alloy which is again liquated. Block tin is cast in moulds of marble. The purest metal (containing only 0.01 per cent. of iron) is called grain tin, and is produced by heating the best block tin until it is brittle, and dropping it from a considerable height upon flat stones. The German process of refining consists in pouring the melted crude tin from a certain height upon an inclined castiron plate, coated with loam and covered with a layer of glowing coal about 0.25 metre thick. The less fusible impurities remain among the coals, and the purified tin flows along the plate, to be collected in a sump of cast iron filled with coal. The operation is performed repeatedly; the coals are subsequently beaten, to remove adhering grains of tin, and the residue is returned to the smelting furnace. Care must be taken to cast tin at the right temperature. If too hot, it becomes iridescent and “redshort;" if too cold, it assumes a dull appearance, becomes "cold-short," and loses ductility. The proper moment for casting is shown by a mirror-like clearness of the surface of the bath. A special refining of tin in the humid way consists in dissolving the granulated metal in muriatic acid, and precipitation by zinc. The zinc solution is subsequently decomposed with milk of lime, and the precipitate manufactured by heating into zine white.-The following analyses are from Kerl's Metallhüttenkunde (Leipsic, 1873): dered charcoal, 7; m, the tapping duct, ending CON-I Sn... 99-961 99 9 99-76 98.64 93.50 95-66 99-9 99-594 98.18 As... Bi.. trace 0.406 1.60 trace trace 8.76 2.34 0.1 1, 2. Banca. 8, 4. English. 5, 6. Peruvian (Bolivian). 7. Saxon, from ore treated with muriatic acid. 8. Bohemian, refined. 9. Bohemian roll tin, third class. -Uses of Tin. Tin foil is used for coating the | than the preceding, so that the sheets acquire backs of mirrors, wrapping articles requiring to be kept from the air, lining boxes, covering Leyden flasks, &c. The latter uses require less copper in the composition, and the material is sometimes called stanniol. Of the following four analyses by Stötzel, the first two are of foil for large mirrors, the third for small mirrors, and the fourth for wrappers and linings: 4. 0.95 2.41 a coating first of alloy and finally of pure tin; then into melted grease again, in which the superfluous tin runs off, while the liquid grease prevents a too rapid cooling and consequent cracking of the surface. As the tin in the final tin bath becomes fouled by alloyed iron, it is removed to the preceding tin bath, and from this in turn to the first bath. After the final grease bath (tallow and palm oil), which anneals the plates, the edging of tin which usually forms around them is removed by dip96 21 ping into melted cast iron, which melts it, so that a quick blow on the plate causes it to drop off. The plates are at last rubbed with bran and then with sheepskin to remove grease and dirt, sorted, packed in boxes, and marked to indicate size and quality. The sheet iron for tin plates is rolled from the best charcoal or coke bar. Terne plates have, instead of tin, a coating of tin-lead alloy, containing from one third to two thirds lead. Iron may be coated with zinc first, and then very readily tinned by dipping into the fused metal, since tin and zine unite with ease. Sheet zinc is tinned in the same way, but should not be left in the bath so long as to become alloyed with tin beyond the surface. Lead and its alloys may be tinned in like manner. The process above given for tinning iron is not applicable to cast iron, unless it has been decarbonized on the surface by heating in iron oxide, after the manner of the "annealing" practised in the manufacture of malleable castings. The humid methods of plating tin upon various metals are numerous. Pins, which are made of brass wire, and other objects of brass or copper, are dipped into an aqueous solution, containing 1 part argal, 2 parts alum, and 2 parts salt, in which tin has been dissolved, or to which stannous chloride has been added. In this liquid they remain unaffected until brought into contact with metallic tin, whereby an electro-chemical action is caused, and all the objects connected directly or through one another with the metallic tin are immediately coated with tin reduced and precipitated from the solution. Boiling brass or copper objects, in contact with tin filings, in a solution of stannic oxide in caustic potash, is also an excellent way. Iron objects (nails, hooks and eyes, &c.) may be tinned, after suitable cleansing, in a bath of argal and stannous chloride, with the addition of zinc filings; or the bath may be composed of equal parts of the tin salt and common salt, dissolved in water, or of 1 part tin salt, part sal ammoniac, and 1 part common salt, dissolved in 2 parts nitric and 4 parts muriatic acid, diluted with water. In the latter liquid most metallic objects may be tinned by sufficiently prolonged immersion, copper or iron being kept in contact with a zinc wire during the process. Zinc is most easily tinned. For galvanic tinning a weak battery may be employed, and a solution of stannic chloride in caustic potash. But the use of the battery in this and similar opera Tin foil is prepared by rolling cast tin into plates, and beating and doubling as with gold foil, though by a simpler process. (See GOLDBEATING). Tin foil consisting of a surface of tin, with an interior of lead or tin-lead alloy, is prepared by placing a plate of lead or alloy in a mould slightly larger, casting tin around it, and rolling and hammering. Tin-lined lead pipe for plumbers' use is made by setting a core of block tin in the centre of a mass of melted lead, so that the more fusible tin is melted, but does not mix with the remainder of the bath, and then proceeding as in the ordinary manufacture of lead pipe. (See LEAD, vol. x., p. 262.) Tin plating is performed either by covering the metallic articles to be plated with melted tin, or by humid processes. The former method is chiefly confined to copper, iron, and zinc. Copper may be heated, cleaned with sal ammoniac, sprinkled with resin to prevent oxidation, and then plated by pouring melted tin upon it, and spreading the tin with tow, a high temperature being maintained. The plating of sheet iron, to form so-called "tin plate" or sheet tin, for domestic utensils, &c., is conducted as follows: The thin sheets of iron are cleaned by immersion in dilute sulphuric acid and subsequent rubbing with sand and water and washing, after which they are annealed by exposure to cherry heat for 12 hours in cast-iron boxes, tightly closed and luted. Imperfect or seriously oxidized plates are rejected. The accepted ones, which are purplish from a thin external film of oxide, are polished by being passed cold through rolls, then subjected to a second and less prolonged annealing, then sorted and cleansed again, and finally taken to the tinning apparatus. After cleansing they will quickly rust on exposure to air, but may be kept indefinitely without injury if immersed in pure water. The tinning apparatus comprises a series of long rectangular pots or tanks, with a fire under each. These tanks contain the liquid baths into which the plates are to be plunged. The operation comprises a series of immersions: first into melted grease, in which the plates are left till all moisture has evaporated; then successively into several baths of tin, each of which is purer tions on a commercial scale will doubtless be superseded by the modern magneto-electric machines, which furnish the necessary current by mechanical instead of chemical means; or, to speak more accurately, by the combustion of coal, a cheap fuel, instead of the combustion of zinc or other expensive substances. TINAMOU, a name applied to the tinamida, a family of gallinaceous birds peculiar to South America. The bill is moderate, rather straight, flattened, the base covered by a membrane, and the tip suddenly hooked; wings short and concave; tail short or wanting; tarsi rather long, scaled in front, and without spurs; toes long, with stout blunt claws, the hind one sometimes wanting. They live in the fields on the borders of woods, are low and heavy fliers, but rapid runners, and feed on grains, fruits, and insects; they lay about a dozen eggs, on the ground in tufts of grass, and the young when hatched soon disperse; when pursued they endeavor to hide in the bushes, and are often caught by a noose on the end of a stick; their Tinamou. flesh is exceedingly good; they vary from 6 to 18 in. in length, and are usually of a reddish or gray brown. In the genus tinamus (Lath.; crypturus, Illig.), the bill is shorter than the head, the upper mandible the longer, and the nostrils in the middle; first quill short, fourth and fifth longest; hind toe small and elevated. The great tinamou (T. Brasiliensis, Lath.) is about 15 in. long, of a deep olive color, slightly and narrowly banded with black, with crown red and secondaries red and black; pale reddish ash below; it is found in Guiana and Brazil, resembling in size, habits, colors, and quality of flesh the partridges of the old world; though gentle and timid, it is said not to be capable of domestication. The males have a trembling plaintive whistle to warn of danger or attract the females; they live in couples during breeding time, at other seasons in small flocks. The nest is made on the ground in a slight hollow, covered with dry grasses; they lay twice a year; the young follow the parent as soon as hatched. Other genera are rhynchotus (Spix), with the species R. rufescens (Wagl.) or rufescent tinamou, inhabiting the | borders of lakes and the swampy thickets of Paraguay in small troops; and tinamotis (Vig.), with three or four species, found in high desert places, some distance from fresh water. TINCTURE, a solution of a vegetable, animal, or in some cases mineral substance in alcohol, dilute alcohol, or ether. As tinctures present the active principles of many drugs in a small bulk, and are little liable to change, they are largely used in medicine. They are made by maceration or displacement. The former process consists in soaking the drug for a time which varies greatly in different cases. Displacement or percolation is largely employed in the preparation of fluid extracts as well as of tinctures, and consists in allowing the fluid employed to filter slowly through the powdered drug, the lower layer of fluid, containing a large portion of the soluble constituents, being constantly drawn off and its place supplied by fresh strata from above. This process is in most cases much more rapid than maceration. Tincture of iodine and tincture of the chloride of iron demand no maceration, as iodine dissolves rapidly in alcohol or ether, while the iron preparation is a mere mixture of a solution with alcohol. TINDAL, Matthew, an English author, born at Beer-Ferris, Devonshire, about 1657, died in London, Aug. 16, 1733. He was educated at Oxford, took the degree of bachelor in 1676, and was elected to a fellowship at All Souls, which he retained through life. He was created LL. D. in 1685, and soon after became a Roman Catholic, but returned to the church of England just before the revolution of 1688. After the revolution, of which he was a zealous partisan, he became an advocate, sat as judge in the court of delegates, and received a pension from the crown of £200. In 1706 he 'published "The Rights of the Christian Church asserted, against the Romish and all other Priests that claim an independent Power over it," in opposition to high church principles. This excited a long controversy, during which he published two defences, which he reprinted in 1709, with essays on obedience and the law of nations, the liberty of the press, and the rights of mankind in matters of religion. In 1710 he attacked the party of Dr. Sacheverell in a pamphlet entitled "New High Church turned Old Presbyterian;" but the house of commons on one day condemned Sacheverell's sermons, and on the next ordered Tindal's "Rights of the Christian Church" and the. second edition of his "Defences" to be burned. His most important work is "Christianity as old as the Creation, or the Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature" (1730), in which he expressly denies that Christianity contains any truth which the human reason might not have discovered for itself. Waterland, James Foster, Conybeare, Leland, Chapman, and others wrote replies to it. He left a second volume of this, only the preface to which has been published. TINDALE, William. See TYNDALE. Prof. O. C. Marsh in the eocene of Wyoming territory, in 1870. It was as large as an elephant, and had many characters of the proboscidians, with three separate pairs of horns, and large decurved canines like the walrus; it also had characters of both the perissodactyl and artiodactyl ungulates. These animals have been named cobasileus and loxolophodon by Prof. Cope, and uintatherium by Prof. Leidy. ("American Naturalist," vol. vii., 1873.) TINNÉ, the northern branch of the great Athabascan family of American Indians, being the most northerly of all except the Esquimaux. They live north of lat. 55°, and extend from central Alaska to Hudson bay. They embrace several large divisions, differing in language: 1, the Chippewyans or Pointed Skins, called Montagnais by the French, including also the Caribou Eaters and Yellow TINTORETTO, Il, an Italian painter, whose Knives; 2, the Beaver Indians, on the west, real name was GIACOMO ROBUSTI, born in Venthe Mauvais Monde, and Sarcees; 3, the Dog ice in 1512, died there in 1594. He was the Ribs, Slaves, Hares, Nahaunes, Red Knives, son of a dyer, whence he received his popular Sheep, Brushwood, and Rocky Mountain In- name. He studied for a short time under Tidians, all E. of the Rocky mountains; 4, the tian, and subsequently began a rigorous course Tacully or Carriers, including the Sicaunees in of self-instruction, inscribing over his studio: British Columbia; 5, the Kutchin Dekedhé or Il disegno di Michel Angelo e'l colorito di TiLoucheux; 6, the Kenai, including the Atnas ziano ("The drawing of Michel Angelo and in Alaska. They are generally mild, timid, and the coloring of Titian "). He did not however honest, live on fish or reindeer and other ani- content himself with following them, but asmals, more frequently snared than hunted, and pired to become the founder of a school, which do not attempt to cultivate the ground. They should supply whatever was deficient in their are tall and slim, with a full face, dark com- styles. He soon rose into great reputation plexion, and piercing eyes, and have more among the Venetians, and in his best period beard than other Indians. Their weapons and his quickness of invention and the facility implements are generally rude, made of bone and rapidity of his execution were unequalled or stone; but some tribes make excellent wa- perhaps by any painter; but his impetuosity ter-tight vessels of roots. Their jkanze or made his performances remarkably unequal. medicine men have great influence. The His portraits are his most uniformly excellent Chippewyans leave the dead unburied, but the works, and his landscapes are distinguished Tacullies burn them. The estimates of their for imaginative suggestiveness. But his repunumbers vary; those east of the Rocky moun- tation rests mainly upon his great historical tains are estimated by Archbishop Taché at pictures in Venice. His masterpieces are the 15,000. Catholic and Protestant missions have two immense compositions representing St. been established among them in various parts. Mark rescuing a tortured slave from the hands TINNE, Alexandrine Petronella Francina, a Dutch of the heathen, and the "Crucifixion,” both traveller, born at the Hague, Oct. 17, 1835, painted in his best period. The doge's palace murdered in Fezzan, Africa, Aug. 1, 1869. Her is rich in his works, and contains, among other father was an English merchant, her mother remarkable pieces, a representation of parathe baroness Van Steengracht-Capellen of Hol- dise 844 ft. long and 34 ft. high, painted, like land. She was rich, travelled in Europe and almost everything he produced, in oil. In the East, settled in 1861 in Cairo, and in 1862 the latter part of his life he degenerated into set out from Khartoom with a steamboat, a coarse style, of which his "Last Judgment" transport vessels, beasts of burden, and a large and "Worshipping of the Golden Calf," in the retinue, to visit the White Nile. Her state church of Sta. Maria dell' Orto, are examples. made the natives believe her the daughter of a In the maturity of his powers he wrought so sultan. In 1863 she explored the Bahr el- fast and at so low a price, that few of the conGhazal, the W. arm of the White Nile, in com- temporary painters of Venice could get empany with Baron von Heuglin and Dr. Steud-ployment. Many of his works were bestowed ner, the latter of whom, together with Miss Tinne's mother, and many others, died from exposure. The expedition, which was absent 14 months, determined astronomically the position of Lake Meshera, one of the feeders of the Ghazal. The flora of the region has since been illustrated in Kotschy's Planta Tinnianæ, partly from her drawings and descriptions. In 1869 she set out from Tripoli for Bornoo, with 70 camels and 50 attendants, of whom the only Europeans were two Dutch sailors. From Moorzook she turned aside to visit the country of the Tuariks, and while on the way to Ghat was murdered by her attendants. TINOCERAS, or Titanotherium, a fossil mammal of the order dinocerata, discovered by | gratuitously upon convents, and for others he got barely enough to pay for the materials. TIOGA. I. A S. county of New York, bordering on Pennsylvania, and intersected by the North branch of the Susquehanna river and by several railroads; area, 480 sq. m.; pop. in 1875, 31,744. The surface is very hilly and the soil generally fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 103,955 bushels of wheat, 229,395 of Indian corn, 622,379 of oats, 167,674 of buckwheat, 398,770 of potatoes, 79,432 lbs. of wool, 1,907,767 of butter, and 65,078 tons of hay. There were 6,402 horses, 16,424 milch cows, 9,393 other cattle, 19,668 sheep, and 6,130 swine; 8 manufactories of agricultural implements, 3 of boots and shoes, |