open to all. The imports of tea into Great Britain and Ireland for five years, ending Dec. 31, entered for home consumption only, were: 1869, 998,995 cwt.; 1870, 1,050,202; 1871, 1,102,943; 1872, 1,141,003; 1873, 1,178,760. The value of the total import for the same years, of which one fourth was reexported, was £10,311,465, £10,097,619, £11,635,644, £12,933,143, and £11,372,595. The imports into the United States for five years, ending June 30, for home tonsumption, were: 1869'70, 423,293 cwt.; 1870-'71, 458,615; 1871-'2, 569,741; 1872-'3, 578,707; 1873-4, 498,318. The total values (in gold) for the respective years were $13,871,546, $17,254,617, $22,943,575, $24,466,170, and $21,212,334. mixture of two or three sorts) are placed in the pot, boiling water poured on, and in a few minutes, the cups being emptied of the water put in to warm them, it is served. The character of the water greatly influences the quality of the tea, it being impossible to make really good tea with hard water. Excess of lime in the water may be corrected by the judicious use of carbonate of soda.-The effects of the habitual use of tea have been much discussed, some regarding them as highly deleterious, while others, on account of the large proportion of nitrogen in theine, have maintained that tea is nutritious, and serves as a substitute for food. The elaborate experiments of Dr. Edward Smith ( Foods," in the "International Scientific Series," New York, TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, in the United States, 1873) are worthy of study; his results in brief an assemblage of the teachers of the public are: that while the amount of nutriment con- schools of a county or part of a county for tained in the quantity of tea one consumes is the purpose of receiving instruction in the not sufficient to be of use in building up the art and methods of teaching, by lectures, consystem or in supplying heat, it has a marked ferences, class drills, &c., from experienced effect upon the vital functions, and particular- teachers. An institute is usually held in each ly stimulates respiration, as shown by the in-county under the supervision of the county creased amount of carbonic acid thrown off by superintendent of schools once a year, somethe lungs after taking it; and that it power- times oftener, the sessions lasting from one to fully promotes the assimilation and transforma- two weeks. The instruction is free. This tion of other foods. Excessive use of tea pro- plan was first adopted by Henry Barnard, duces wakefulness and increased mental and state superintendent of schools in Connectibodily activity, which is followed by a reaction cut, in 1839. Institutes have been held in that brings exhaustion and a corresponding New York since 1843, and have been maindepression. Most of the unpleasant effects of tained by state appropriations since 1847. They tea are ascribed to the volatile oil; the long were begun in Massachusetts and Rhode Islcontinued breathing of air impregnated with and in 1845, and soon afterward in many other this produces illness in the packers of tea, and states. In most of the states they are required the tea tasters at the tea marts in China, who by law to be held, and in several the attenare even careful not to swallow the infusion, dance of teachers is obligatory. In some states are obliged in a few years to give up their provision is made for their maintenance by lucrative positions with shattered constitutions. public funds. The instruction in these temThe Chinese, who drink tea at all times, are porary training schools is necessarily almost careful to use none less than a year old, as in wholly oral, and is confined to an explanation time the oil either evaporates or is so modified and illustration of the best methods of teachthat it ceases to be injurious.-There are nu- ing and governing schools. Conferences are merous substitutes for tea in different coun- held, in which the teachers relate their own tries, and widely separated peoples have in experience of particular methods of instrucuse some plant the active principle of which tion and discipline. is closely analogous to, if not identical with, that in tea. Besides coffee and chocolate, one of the most important of these beverages is the Paraguay tea. (See MATÉ.) The khat of Arabia and Abyssinia, introduced into the Mohammedan parts of Africa, is catha edulis, the leaves and small twigs of which possess the properties of tea in an eminent degree. The coca of Peru and Bolivia, though generally chewed, has similar properties, and is sometimes used like tea. (See CoCA.) Other plants might be cited. (See also NEW JERSEY TEA.) -The official records of importation into England begin in 1725, in which year there was imported 370,323 lbs. ; in the first year of the present century the quantity entered for home consumption was 23,730,150 lbs. Until 1834 the East India company had a monopoly of tea, which paid a heavy duty; but in that year the duty was reduced, and the trade thrown TEAK, an East Indian tree, tectona grandis (called in Malabar tecca), valuable for its timber. It belongs to the cerbenacea, a family which, while its most familiar representatives with us are ornamental herbs and shrubs, includes some important tropical trees. The teak is remarkable for its size and beauty; it grows over 200 ft. high; the elliptical leaves are 12 to 24 in. long, and so rough as to be useful for polishing wood; the small white flowers are fragrant, in terminal panicles, and have the structure common to the family. The tree is found in various parts of India and the adjacent islands, and has been introduced into other British possessions. It is probable that other and closely related species contribute to the supply of commerce. The wood of the teak is one of the most remarkable known on account of its great weight, hardness, and durability, qualities which have caused it to be long used in the East, not only for temples, but for dwellings. It is most employed in ship building, being practically indestructible by wear or decay, and vessels built of it have lasted 100 Teak (Tectona grandis). years, to be then only broken up on account of their poor sailing qualities from faulty models. The wood works easily, but on account of the large amount of silex contained in it, the tools employed are quickly worn away; it is brownish, and contains an oil which prevents spikes and other iron work with which it is in contact from rusting, even when the wood is used green. Its weight varies in different localities, from 42 to 52 lbs. to the cubic foot; the teak from Malabar is the heaviest, while that from Burmah and Siam is much lighter; in ship building its great weight largely offsets its durability, and it is therefore now customary to use it only for planking.-Various similar woods are called teak; the African teak was long used in ship building before its origin was known; it is the genus Oldfieldia, of the euphorbia family. TEAL, the common name of the small river ducks of the genera nettion (Kaup) and querquedula (Stephens), called sarcelles by the French. In the genus nettion the bill is as long as the head, straight, unusually narrow, with sides parallel, as high as broad at the base, the depressed tip with a very narrow nail; wings moderate and pointed, second quill the longest, and the secondaries lengthened and pointed; tail moderate and wedge-shaped; toes united by a full web, the hind one short and slighty lobed. There are about 20 species, distributed all over the globe, though most numerous in the northern hemisphere; they are migratory, commencing their rapid flights in small flocks soon after sunset, resting by day on the surface of fresh water or the reedy shores of rivers and lakes, and feeding principally at night on aquatic insects and worms, seeds, and grains; the nest is made of a large mass of decayed vegetable matter lined with down, and the eggs are eight to ten; they are highly esteemed as game. The European teal was domesticated by the Romans. The greenwinged teal (N. Carolinensis, Baird) is 14 in. long, 22 to 24 in. in alar extent, and the bill 1 in.; the head and neck are chestnut, the chin black, and the forehead dusky; around the eyes and on the sides of the head is a broad rich green stripe, passing into a bluish black patch on the nape; below white, with rounded black spots on throat; lower neck, sides, and scapulars finely banded with black and grayish white; speculum on wings broad and rich green; a white crescent in front of bend of wings; under tail coverts black, with a patch of buff white on each side; wing coverts plain olivegray; in the female the under parts are white, and the upper dark brown with gray edgings. It occurs over the whole of North America, and accidentally in Europe; it migrates principally over the land, breeding from the great lakes to the fur countries; it runs well, is a good swimmer and diver, and a very rapid and graceful flier; having a comparatively long neck, it feeds while swimming, and, being choice in its selection of food, affords a delicious flesh; it is not very shy; the eggs are 13 by 13 in., much rounded, dull yellowish with indistinct deeper tints.-In the genus querquedula the bill widens a little to the end, which is obtusely rounded, is higher than broad at base, has a wider nail and the lamellæ visible on the sides. There are about half a dozen species in North America, Europe, and Asia, Green-winged Teal (Nettion Carolinensis). with habits similar to those of the other genus. The blue-winged teal (Q. discors, Steph.) is 16 in. long, 24 or 25 in. in alar extent, with a bill of 13 in.; the head and neck above are plumbeous gray; top of head black; white crescent in front of eyes; under parts purplish gray, each feather spotted with black; fore part of back brownish with two narrow bands of purplish gray; back behind and tail greenish brown; under tail coverts black; outer webs of some of the scapulars and the wing coverts bright blue; greater coverts tipped with white, with grass-green speculum below them; bill black; in the female the top of the head is brown, chin and throat yellowish white, back brown with paler edgings, under parts whitish with obscure brown spots, and the same blue and white in the wings as in the male. It is found throughout eastern North America to the Rocky mountains, is abundant about the mouths of the Mississippi in winter, and is less hardy than the green-winged species. and itself affording relief by the resumption of nervous action. The sensory, emotional, or instinctive ganglia, situated at the base of the brain, to a certain extent independent of the will, in intense grief become congested, and the flow of tears is the natural method for their relief; hence the danger of cerebral disturbance from long continued tearless grief. Considering their size, there are no other glands which ordinarily can so increase the amount of their secretion as the lachrymal; the quantity is sometimes very great, and very easily stimulated; the shedding of tears is also contagious.-The lachrymal puncta may be closed, causing the tears to flow over the cheeks, for which the remedy is dilatation by fine probes. When the nasal duct is obstructed, the eye is watery and the corresponding nostril dry, the sac forming a small tumor at the side of the nose; the sac also may be inflamed, with pain, tenderness, swelling, and feverish symptoms; this may end in suppuration, and an external opening, constituting lachrymal fistula, requiring the restoration of the obliterated duct by styles of different materials. TEARS, the limpid, colorless, slightly saline secretion of the lachrymal glands, continually poured out in quantity sufficient to bathe the surface of the eyes, to secure the easy and free motion of the lids, and to wash off any irritating particles from their sensitive membrane. The lachrymal belong to the aggregated glands, or those in which the vesicles or acini are arranged in lobules; there is one at the upper, external, and anterior part of each orbit, in a depression of the frontal bone, in relation with the external rectus muscle, resting behind on a fatty areolar tissue; each gland is of the size of a small almond, reddish white, flattened, and enveloped in a fibro-cellular capsule; the secretion is poured out by six or seven trunks opening within the upper lid. At the inner angle of the eyes, in both lids, are two very narrow, always open apertures, the lachrymal puncta, in the middle of a slightly prominent TEASEL (A. S. tæsel, from tæsan, to tease), tubercle, about 14 line from the inner junction the ripened flower heads of dipsacus fullonum, of the lids; they are opposite each other, the used for raising a nap upon woollen cloths. lower turned up and the upper down, and both The genus dipsacus (Gr. divēw, to thirst, supoutward and backward. Through these open-posed to refer to the cups formed by the united ings the tears are conveyed by the lachrymal ducts in each lid to the lachrymal sac, at the inner angle of each eye, in the bony groove between the lachrymal bone and the ascending process of the superior maxillary; it is a small membranous sac, opening below into the nasal duct, which conveys the tears into the nose beneath the inferior turbinated bone. At the inner angle of the lids, in front of the globe and behind the lachrymal puncta, is a small reddish tubercle, pyramidal, with the summit turned forward and outward; this is the lachrymal caruncle, and consists of a mass of small mucous follicles, covered by the conjunctiva, which forms in front and to the outside a semilunar fold, called the nictitating membrane; this is rudimentary in man, but remarkably developed in birds. The act of crying, generally accompanying an increased secretion of tears, as far as the movements of respiration are concerned, is very nearly the same as that of laughing, though occasioned by a contrary emotion; the expiratory muscles are in more or less violent convulsive movement, sending out the breath in a series of jerks, accompanied by well known sounds; in children the act is sometimes continued almost to the complete emptying of the chest of air, to the great dismay of parents, but the necessity of breathing is always stronger than the convulsive muscular movements. Moderate excitement, whether of joy, tenderness, or grief, increases greatly the quantity of the tears, though the secretion is checked by violent emotions; in intense grief the tears do not flow, the restoration of the secretion being a sign of moderated sorrow, | leaves in some species, which hold water) is the representative of a small family, the dipsaceœ, which is so closely related to the composita that in a systematic arrangement it is placed. next to that family. Like the composites, the teasel family have their flowers in dense heads, but their anthers are not united and the seeds have albumen. In the teasel itself, of which there are about a dozen old-world species, the plants are biennial or perennial, with coarse, deeply toothed, opposite, rough leaves; the branches are terminated by an oblong head, consisting of small flowers, each in the axil of a bract, which appears as a strong scale when the seeds are ripe. The wild teasel (D. sylvestris) is sparingly introduced, and is found in the older states as a roadside weed; it is from 2 to 6 ft. high, and its numerous heads of pale purple flowers, with a large involucre at their base, make it a conspicuous and not inelegant plant; the bracts to the heads terminate in a long straight point; it should be treated as an intruder. The teasel of commerce, or fullers' teasel, though bearing the specific name given above, is generally supposed to have originated from the wild teasel, from which it differs in having a longer head with a shorter involucre; the bracts are much stiffer, and have hooked points. These heads, when ripe, are about 21 in. long and 1 in. in diameter, and clothed with regular, strong, sharp, recurved hooks; they are an important article of commerce, and in some countries of cultivation; considerable quantities are produced in England, but the chief supply is from Holland and France. The teasel has now and then been cultivated in is thrown against the plants to keep them upright; when the flowers wither, the heads are cut, leaving 8 or 9 in. of stalk attached, and dried in the sun. Their use is to tease or raise a nap upon cloth, and this is done by the hooks, which catch and pull out one end of the wool fibres, near the surface, leaving the other end of the fibre still twisted in the thread. Formerly teasing, or teasling, was done by hand, the heads being fastened in a frame, and drawn over the surface of the cloth by the operator with a frame in each hand; now the work is done by machinery; the teasels, cut lengthwise into halves or quarters, are attached to a wooden cylindrical frame, which revolves, while at the same time the cloth passes beneath it. Much inventive talent has been expended in providing substitutes for teasels, but all have been discarded; for the natural teasel, unlike any artificial substitute, while sufficiently strong to perform the required work, will yield or break in contact with a knot or other obstacle, without injury to the cloth. TECHNOLOGY (Gr. Texvh, an art, and 2óyos, discourse), the systematic knowledge of the theory and practice of the industrial arts. It is divisible into several branches, but chiefly into chemical technology and mechanical technology. Chemical technology embraces those industries which chiefly demand a knowledge of chemistry, such as the manufacture of chemicals, including the various acids and the compounds of soda and potash; the manufacture of soap and candles, glass, and the various kinds of pottery and porcelain; the manufacture of illuminating gas, and the distillation and refining of the waste products of gas works and of crude petroleum; and the distillation and rectification of spirits and the fermentation of wine and beer. Mechanical technology embraces textile manufactures and the mechanic arts in general. In many of the arts a combination of both mechanical and chemical knowledge is required, as in glass making and calico printing. Schools of technology are established independently and also in connection with colleges and universities, not only for the advantage of the general student, but for those who intend to become experts in one or at most a few branches, in which the fundamental principles of the arts are taught, including mathematics, mechanical engineering, natural philosophy, chemistry, and usually mineralogy and geology. In independent institutions other branches are added. Tecum TECUMSEH, or Tecumtha, a chief of the Shawnee Indians, born near the present town of Springfield, Ohio, about 1768, killed at the battle of the Thames, Oct. 5, 1813. His first prominent appearance was in the attack on Fort Recovery in 1794. About 1805 his brother Elskwatawa set up as a prophet, denouncing the use of liquors, and of all food and seh and the prophet then attempted to unite manners introduced by the whites. all the western tribes into one nation to resist the whites. They visited the Indians from the lakes to the gulf of Mexico, and soon had a village of 400 Indians gathered at Greenville. Gen. Harrison required them to remove, as it was beyond the Indian limit fixed by treaty. Tecumseh went to Vincennes with 400 warriors to overawe Harrison, and the conference was broken up by his violence. Finding that he had gone too far, he attempted to explain. In 1811, while he was in the south exciting the Creeks and Seminoles to rise by promise of English aid, Harrison marched on the prophet's town to demand that the Indians should return to their various tribes, murderers of whites be surrendered, and plunder given up. The prophet attacked him, and was defeated at Tippecanoe, on the Wabash (Nov. 7). This disconcerted Tecumseh's plans and broke the spell of the prophet's power. When war was declared with England, Tecumseh appeared in Canada with a number of warriors, and refused to meet the American commanders in council. He was in the action against Van Horne on the Raisin, and after being wounded at Maguaga was made a brigadier general in the British forces. He was in command with Proctor at the siege of Fort Meigs, and saved American prisoners from massacre. After the battle of Lake Erie he urged Proctor to engage Harrison when he landed, but accompanied him in his retreat. In the first engagement he was wounded while holding the passage of a stream. With Proctor he selected the battle ground at the Thames, in the S. W. corner of Canada, and he commanded the right wing. Laying aside his sword and uniform in the conviction that he must fall, he put on his hunting dress and fought desperately till he was killed. Col. R. M. Johnson was said to have shot him; but in reality his death was not for some days known to the Americans.-The life of Tecumseh and of his brother the prophet has been written by Benjamin Drake (12mo, Cincinnati, 1841). TEETH, the organs in vertebrates for the seizure and mastication of food, placed at or near the entrance to the alimentary canal. In adult man there are 32, 16 in each jaw, implanted in sockets, and of an irregular conoid form; in the child, previous to the second dentition, there are only 20. For their development see DENTITION. The number of the teeth increases in the lower animals, being greatest in the cetaceans and marsupials among mammals, and also considerable in many reptiles and fishes. The portion of a tooth above the socket is called the crown, the concealed part the root or fang; between these there is a more or less marked constriction or neck. In vertebrate animals the teeth, like the bones, have for their earthy basis phosphate of lime, mingled with some carbonate of lime and a certain proportion of fluoride of calcium. The latter substance is more abundant in the enamel of the teeth than elsewhere, but everywhere phosphate of lime is the main ingredient upon which the teeth depend for their solidity and firmness.-A tooth is composed of three different tissues, dentine, crusta petrosa, and enamel. The dentine, forming the greater part of the body of the tooth, consists of a firm, transparent, nearly homogeneous substratum, composed of about 72 per cent. of calcareous matter and 28 per cent. of organic substance. It is permeated throughout by minute cylindrical channels, called canaliculi, about T of an inch in diameter, which radiate from a central cavity contained in the tooth, called the pulp cavity, toward the external surface of the dentine. During their course the canaliculi branch and divide, often several times in succession, becoming thus very much reduced in size and at the same time increased in number. In the central cavity of the dentine is contained the pulp of the tooth, a soft, vascular, and sensitive papilla, the only portion of the tooth which is supplied with blood vessels and nerves. Undoubtedly the canaliculi of the dentine are either channels for the absorption of nutritious fluids from the pulp, or are filled with soft filaments composed of organic material, by which this absorption is accomplished. The crusta petrosa is a thin layer of bony tissue attached to the outside of the dentine in the fang of the tooth, and serving to connect it, by means of its periosteum, more firmly to the socket. It differs but little from compact bony tissue elsewhere, except that it contains no blood vessels, and is distinguished only by the presence of the irregularly shaped bone corpuscles, which are connected by their radiating filaments with the extremities of the canaliculi of the dentine. The enamel, which covers the surface of the crown of the tooth, is much the hardest of its tissues, containing often over 95 per cent. of calcareous matter. It appears to consist of superimposed layers of calcified epithelium, and is well adapted, by its extreme solidity and almost crystalline texture, to endure the attrition of foreign substances without disintegration.-Three kinds of teeth are distinguishable in mammals, viz., incisors, canines, and molars. The incisors are in the front and median portion of the jaws, and have a simple flattened root and a thin cutting edge, suitable for dividing and collecting food, as in the jaws of the beaver and squirrel and in the lower jaw of the ox. The canines, four in number, are next to the incisors, separated from them by an interval, except in man; the crown is conical, and the root long and simple. They are the so-called eye and stomach teeth in man, and form a striking characteristic and formidable weapons in the carnivora; they are best adapted for securing and tearing living prey. The molar teeth are the most posterior, and have flattened and tuberculous crowns suited for grinding down vegetable food; they are most developed in herbivorous animals; the roots in man are often much bifurcated, rendering extraction difficult.-Teeth are so intimately related to the food and habits of animals, so easily examined, and of such indestructible materials, that they are of the first importance in the classification of animals, both living and fossil. When fully formed they are subject to decay, but have no inherent power of reparation; they may increase by abnormal growth of the crusta petrosa, their most highly organized constituent. For the diseases and the mode of treatment of the teeth, see DENTISTRY.-In fishes the teeth vary from none in the sturgeon and lophobranchs to countless numbers in the pike and the siluroids. They are usually conical, but sometimes flattened or pavement-like, villiform, serrated, and cutting; they may be situated on any of the bones of the oral cavity, on the tongue, and in the pharynx; in most cases they are firmly united to the jaws by continuous ossification, but in some are movable; they are composed of dentine and its modifications, enamel occurring in only a few cases, like the parrot fish (scarus); and they are frequently shed and renewed, the germs being developed from the free surface of the buccal membrane. Among reptiles, the whole order of chelonians (tortoises and turtles), and also the toad family among batrachians, are without teeth. In the others these organs are usually simple, and adapted for seizing and holding but not chewing their food; the number is never so small nor so large as in fishes, and is rarely characteristic of species. They are generally conical, sharp, and smooth, and may be placed on any of the bones entering into the structure of the mouth; the base never branches into diverging fangs, and in most is anchylosed in various ways to the bone which bears them, as noticed |