from a corner of each triangle to the opposite side serve to rectify the other measures of the triangle, and if perpendicular to the side afford a convenient means of calculating upon the ground the area of the triangle. Perpendiculars to any line are readily laid out with a chain, as carpenters and masons draw right angles by what they call the 6, 8, and 10 rule, the popular application of the principle of the square of the hypothenuse being equal to the .sum of the squares of the two other sides. The method is to measure from the point where the perpendicular meets the line, either along this line or along the perpendicular, a distance equal to six units of any kind, and then upon the other of these lines a distance of eight units. The two lines are perpendicular to each other when the two termini are just ten units apart. Convenient distances for this measurement might be 3, 4, and 5 rods or chains, or any similar multiples of these numbers, as 21, 28, and 35. Other trigonometrical methods readily suggest themselves. A number of convenient instruments of simple form, known as the surveyor's cross, are in. use for setting out perpendiculars by lines of sight, crossing each other at right angles; and a temporary substitute for them is easily made by sticking a pin in each corner of a square piece of board, and sighting across these in the direction of the line and at right angles to it. Angles in the field are determined by a chain, by measuring a "tie line from a measured point on one side to another measured point on the other side. By this means the boundaries of a tract may be determined when it cannot be conveniently measured off in triangles. A great variety of expedients are adopted for overcoming natural obstacles and determining the extent and shape of inaccessible objects, systems of triangles being in such cases formed outside of and around such objects. Crooked lines are determined by means of perpendicular offsets measured from different points along a straight line run as nearly coincident to the crooked line as may be. In all the methods of surveying, the measurements, together with various incidental observations, are recorded, after some established system, in what are called field notes, and from these the results of the survey are afterward plotted to a convenient scale. A more common system of surveying is that in which instruments for taking angles are employed in connection with the chain. A graduated horizontal circle, with a straight edge called an alidade turning upon its central point, which may be conveniently, sighted along, furnishes the means of ascertaining the angular distance of two lines, the instrument being set at their intersection, and the alidade pointed in the direction of one and then of the other. This involves the principle of the engineer's transit, or of the theodolite. (Seo THEODOLITE.) With these instruments angles can be determined with great

accuracy, especially when the observations are repeated by reversing the instrument and taking the mean, each including the reading of both verniers. With the transit and the chain for measuring distances, a tract of almost any dimensions is accurately surveyed by measuring the angles at its corners, and the correctness of the work is proved when the sum of all the interior angles is found equal to the product of two right angles, or 180°, by the number of sides of the tract less two; or if the instrument be used by the method called traversing, or "surveying by the back angle" (which consists in noting the angle which each successive line makes, not with the preceding line, but with the first line observed, which is hence called the meridian of the survey), then the reading, on getting round to the last station, and looking back to the first line, should be 360°, or 0°. A compass and chain may be employed in filling up the interior details of a large survey with the transit; and the compass may be used for determining the magnetic bearing of one of the lines, unless this be astronomically ascertained by observations of the north star or of the shadows before and after noon. The compass is the instrument in most common use in ordinary surveying. The magnetic needle, wherever the instrument is set, establishes the meridian line, and from this, the sights of the instrument being turned to any other line, the angle of divergence is read on the graduated circle around the compass box. This instrument has been described under its own name; also the more perfect instrument, in which its inaccuracies are obviated, under the head of COMPASS, SOLAR.-The details of surveys are variously modified according to the extent of the area, character of the ground, &c. With the transit or compass, the boundary lines may be all followed out, the angles they make with each other determined, and their lengths measured by the chain; the points of crossing of roads, brooks, fences, &c., measured, and the bearings of these objects taken; and increased accuracy may be given to the work by running diagonal or proof lines, as in chain surveying. Additional checks are furnished by taking at each station the bearings of some marked objects, which when the work is plotted should severally fall at the points of intersection of the lines directed toward these objects from the several stations. Sometimes a tract may be surveyed from a measured base line, either a line within or without it, or one of the boundary lines, by placing the compass successively at each end of this line and taking the bearings of each corner; or without a compass the work may be very conveniently performed with approximate correctness by the plane table method, provided no angles are taken less than 30° nor larger than 150°. A drawing board covered with paper is set up at one end of a measured base line, and a ruler furnished with upright sights at each end, exactly over the drawing. edge, is set with this

The 36 sections of each township are numbered in order, beginning with the N. E. corner and thence proceeding along the N. side of the township to section 6 in the N. W. corner; section 7 begins the next line of sections S., the numbers running E. to 12, and then beginning the third line with 13 and running W. to 18, and so on, bringing No. 36 in the S. E. corner of the township. The quarter sections are designated by their position as N. E., N. W., S. E., and S. W. Fractional sections of irregular shapes are admitted on the borders of lakes, rivers, &c. With these explanations any tract may be readily pointed out upon the government maps from its abbreviated description, or any locality in the wildest territory may be correctly defined; thus the S. W. qr. sect. 13, T. 66 N., R. 34 W., meridian Michigan, is traced directly to an old mining location near the N. E. extremity of Isle Royale, Lake Superior. The law which established this system, while it required that the N. and S. lines should be true meridians, also required that the townships should be six miles square. To satisfy both of these conditions is physically impossible, for the figure of the earth causes the meridians to converge toward the pole, thus making the N. line of each township shorter than its S. line; an inequality which becomes more and more marked the higher the latitude of the surveys. Provision is consequently made for correcting the errors thus caused, by establishing what are called correction lines, which are parallels bounding a line of townships on the north when lying N. of the principal base, or the S. line of townships when lying S. of the principal base, from which the surveys as they are continued are laid out anew, the range lines again starting at correct distances from the principal meridian. In Michigan these correction lines are repeated at the end of every tenth township, but in Oregon they have been repeated with every fifth township. The instructions to the surveyors have been that each range of townships should be made as much over 6 m. in width on each base and correction line as it will fall short of the same width where it closes on to the next correction line N.; and it is further provided that in all cases where the exterior lines of the townships shall exceed or shall not extend 6 m., the excess or deficiency shall be specially noted and added to or deducted from the western or northern sections or half sections in such township, according as the error may be in running the lines from E. to W. or from S. to N. In order to throw the excesses or deficiencies on the N. and on the W. sides of the township, it is necessary to survey the section lines from S. to N. on a true meridian, leaving the result in the N. line of the township to be governed by the convexity of the earth and the convergency of the meridians. Navigable rivers, lakes, and islands are "meandered" or surveyed by the compass and chain along the banks.-The in

struments employed on these surveys, besides the solar compass, are a surveying chain 33 ft. long of 50 links, and another of smaller wire as a standard to be used for correcting the former, as often at least as every other day; also 11 tally pins made of steel, telescope, targets, tape measure, and tools for marking the lines upon trees or stones. In surveying through woods, trees intercepted by the line are marked with two chops or notches, one on each side; these are called sight or line trees. Other trees near by not touched by the line are blazed on two sides, quartering toward the line; but if at some distance from the line, the two blazes should be near together, on the side facing the line. These are generally found to be permanent marks, not only recognizable for many years, but carrying with them their own age by the rings of growth around the blaze, which may at any subsequent time be cut out and counted as years; and the same are recognized in courts of Jaw as evidence of the date of the survey. They cannot be obliterated by cutting down the trees or otherwise without leaving evidence of the act. Corners are marked upon trees if found at the right spots, or else upon posts set in the ground, and sometimes a monument of stones is used for a township corner and a single stone for section corners; mounds of earth are made where there are no stones nor timber. At the corners the four adjacent sections are designated by distinct marks cut into a tree, one in each section. These trees facing the corner are plainly marked with the letters B. T. (bearing tree) cut into the wood. Notches cut upon the corner posts or trees indicate the number of miles to the outlines of the township, or, if on the boundaries of the township, to the township corners.-A useful text book is the "Treatise on Land Surveying" of W. M. Gillespie (new ed., New York, 1875).

SURVILLE, Marguerite Eléonore Clotilde de VallonChalys de, a French lady of the 15th century, the reputed authoress of remarkable posthumous poems first collected in 1803 by Vanderbourg. They have been ascribed to her descendant, the marquis Joseph Etienne de Surville, a royalist executed in 1798, and with less probability to the publisher Vanderbourg himself. The poems are in the style of the 15th century, and refer to Clotilde's husband Bérenger de Surville, who fell during the defence of Orleans against the English. Other parts of them are believed to apply to the persecutions endured by Louis XVI. The publication has given rise to a long controversy, but even those who, like Villemain and Sainte-Beuve, question its genuineness, unite in praising the genius of the work.

SUS, a territory of Morocco, comprising the Atlantic coast of that country between the Atlas mountains and the river Asaka or Nun, and extending E. to the country called Draa; area, about 11,500 sq. m.; pop. estimated at 750,000. It is mostly mountainous, the climate

is healthful, and the soil generally good. The principal productions are the cereals and legumes, and the date, olive, argan, fig, almond, and grape. The mountains are rich in minerals, particularly copper and lead, and there are numerous mines which were anciently worked. The inhabitants, who are Shelloohs or Berbers and Arabs, are more austere and more warlike than others of the Moroccans, and use neither tobacco, liquors, nor coffee. They possess but few cattle or sheep. Tarudant, the chief city, a walled town with five gates, is in the valley of the river Sus, 44 m. from the coast. The N. part of Sus, above the river Gaz, is ruled by the governor of Tarudant under the authority of Morocco. Tazeroualt, S. of the Gaz, is governed by a nominally independent sovereign, and the remainder is under independent sheiks.

SUSA (Gr. Tá Zovoa, the city of lilies), an ancient city of Persia, the Shushan (Heb., lily) of the Scriptures, the capital of the province of Susiana, and one of the residences of the court. It was between the Choaspes (the modern Kerkha) and the Coprates (Abzal, an affluent of the Karun), enjoyed a fine climate, and was one of the largest cities of the Persian empire. Strabo says it was 120 stadia in circumference, and surrounded with a wall of burnt brick. According to Pliny, it was founded by Darius Hystaspis, though others make Tithonus, the father of Memnon, its founder. It was for a long period the chief treasury of the Persian empire. In 325 B. C., when visited by Alexander, it possessed immense wealth, and from its plunder he gave largesses to his soldiers and presents of great value to his generals on the occasion of his marriage with Barsine and Parysatis. There has been considerable controversy as to the site of the ancient city, but the discovery by Sir. W. F. Williams and Mr. W. K. Loftus of a gigantic tumulus and cuneiform and Greek inscriptions at the modern Sus, E. of the Kerkha, establish that as the locality of Susa, over Shuster, which was formerly suggested as a probable site.

SUSIAÑA (also Susis and Cissia), an ancient province or region of Persia, of great extent, mountainous in the northeast, but mostly a plain, lying between the Zagros mountains and the Tigris, bounded N. by Media and S. by the Persian gulf. It nearly corresponded to the modern province of Khuzistan. It was drained by the Pasitigris (supposed to be the lower Karun), the Eulæus (the upper Karun), the Choaspes (Kerkha), the Coprates (Abzal), the Hedypnus (Jerrahi), and the Oroatis (Tab). Its earliest inhabitants were the Elymai, probably the Elamites of Scripture, a portion of whom still occupied it in the time of Strabo; the other tribes mentioned as settled in the province are the Susii, who were agriculturists and had their villages on the plain, and the Cissii, Cossæi, Uxii, and Messabatæ, all predatory mountaineers. (See ELYMAIS, and KHUZISTAN.)

SUSO, Heinrich, a German ascetic writer, also known as Brother Amandus, but whose real name was Von Berg, born in Ueberlingen, onLake Constance, about 1300, died in Ulm, Jan. 25, 1365. He was educated in a Dominican convent at Constance, and at Cologne under the mystic Eckhart. After his mother's death he adopted her family name in his 18th year, and led a life of penance at the Constance convent till 1340, when he became an itinerant preacher of great influence, especially among women. His anniversary is celebrated by the Dominicans on March 2. Görres, who translated his autobiography, regarded him as among the most fascinating writers of his class, and his Horologium Sapientiæ Æternæ (1480) ranked in the middle ages next to the "Imitation of Christ." His works, which were written in Latin, have been often reprinted and translated into several languages (modern German by Diepenbrock, Ratisbon, 1829 and 1838). A new edition of his Briefe, by Prega, appeared in 1867.

SUSQUEHANNA, a river of New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, having its source in Otsego lake, Otsego co., N. Y. It flows generally S. W. to the Pennsylvania line in Broome co., receiving the Unadilla and several smaller tributaries; near the Pennsylvania boundary it flows around the base of a spur of the Alleghanies to Binghamton, forming what is called the "Great Bend;" after receiving the Chenango at Binghamton, its course is W. by S. till it again reaches the Pennsylvania line, where it takes a S. E. direction to Pittston, Luzerne co., receiving the Tioga and numerous small tributaries in its course; at Pittston it turns sharply S. W., passes Wilkesbarre, and receives near Sunbury the large affluent known as the West branch of the Susquehan-. na, which is more than 200 m. long, rising above Clearfield, and passing that town, Lock Haven, and Williamsport; then turning southward, it receives the Juniata 14 m. above Harrisburg, and flowing thence S. E. enters the Chesapeake bay at Havre de Grace. Its length is a little more than 400 m. from Otsego lake to the bay, and from the junction of the two branches 153 m. The river is generally shallow, and its course much broken by rapids; in the spring, during flood, rafts and strong boats float down from Binghamton, but at other times it is not navigable. Immense quantities of timber are transported upon it. Canals have been constructed along its banks, on the main stream for 125 m., and on the West branch for 124 m. Its waters abound with fish. The lower waters of the Susquehanna are famous for a great abundance of ducks and other wild fowl.

SUSQUEHANNA, a N. E. county of Pennsylvania, bordering on New York, and drained by tributaries of the Susquehanna river, a portion of which lies in the N. part of the county; area, 800 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 37,523. The surface is very hilly, and the soil fertile and

well adapted to grazing. Timber is abundant, and the export trade in pine lumber is very extensive. It is traversed by several railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 40,522 bushes of wheat, 31,117 of rye, 311,218 of Indian corn, 628,061 of oats, 177,864 of buckwheat, 341,717 of potatoes, 98,459 tons of hay, 108,584 lbs. of wool, 2,580,649 of butter, and 35,560 of honey. There were 8,282 horses, 24,533 milch cows, 20,023 other cattle, 35,700 sheep, and 8,806 swine; 3 manufactories of agricultural implements, 32 of carriages and wagons, 10 of furniture, 4 of iron castings, 18 tanneries, 6 flour mills, 52 saw mills, and 5 woollen mills. Capital, Montrose.

ter.

SUSQUEHANNAS. See CONESTOGAS. SUSSEX. I. A N. county of New Jersey, bordering on New York and Pennsylvania, bounded N. W. by the Delaware river, and drained by the Flatkill, Paulinskill, Wallkill, and Pequest; area, 600 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 23,168. The Blue mountains traverse the W. and the Hamburg and Wawayanda mountains the E. part, and the remainder of the surface is very hilly; the soil is very fertile. The Hopatcong lake is in the S. E. part, and supplies the summit level of the Morris canal; and there are several other small lakes. The Sussex railroad passes through it. Franklinite, iron ore, red oxide of zinc, and other minerals are found. The chief productions in 1870 were 64,532 bushels of wheat, 105,306 of rye, 422,776 of Indian corn, 268,477 of oats,.72,870 of buckwheat, 81,006 of potatoes, 40,335 tons of hay, 11,959 lbs. of wool, and 1,455,788 of butThere were 4,230 horses, 17,376 milch cows, 5,338 other cattle, 3,976 sheep, and 14,414 swine; 8 manufactories of cheese, 1 of pig iron, 3 of castings, 5 of tanned and 5 of curried leather, 18 flour and 7 saw mills, and 6 distilleries. Capital, Newton. II. A S. county of Delaware, bordering on Maryland, Delaware bay, and the Atlantic, and drained by affluents of the Nanticoke and Pocomoke rivers and other streams; area, about 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 31,696, of whom 5,438 were colored. The surface is almost level, and the soil fertile. It is intersected by the Delaware division of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore railroad, and the Junction and Breakwater railroad. The chief productions in 1870 were 69,239 bushels of wheat, 1,122,693 of Indian corn, 55,779 of oats, 87,300 of Irish and 53,390 of sweet potatoes, 3,161 tons of hay, 25,566 lbs. of tobacco, 185,005 of butter, 23,517 of honey, and 32,347 gallons of sorghum molasses. There were 4,074 horses, 1,265 mules and asses, 6,127 milch cows, 4,250 working oxen, 6,968 other cattle, 12,213 sheep, and 18,409 swine; 1 woollen mill, 5 flour mills, and 20 saw mills. Capital, Georgetown. III. A S. E. county of Virginia, bounded N. E. by Blackwater river and intersected by the Nottoway; area, 400 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 7,885, of whom 4,923 were colored. The surface is hilly and the soil fertile. It is intersected by

the Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac railroads. The chief productions in 1870 were 118,305 bushels of Indian corn, 21,357 of oats, 7,223 of Irish and 9,818 of sweet potatoes, 16,110 lbs. of tobacco, 1,833 of wool, and 21,528 of butter. There were 546 horses, 876 milch cows, 1,682 other cattle, 1,352 sheep, and 5,731 swine. Capital, Sussex Court House.

SUSSEX, a S. E. county of England, bordering on Surrey, Kent, the English channel, and Hampshire; area, 1,464 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 417,407. The coast line is not much broken, the most remarkable projection being Beachy Head, 564 ft. above the sea. A range of chalk hills, called the North Downs, crosses the N. E. part of the county; and the South Downs, with an average height of 500 ft. and from 4 to 6 m. broad, run through its entire length nearly parallel to the coast. The principal rivers are the Arun, Adur, and Ouse. The county is purely agricultural, and wheat and hops are the chief products. The downs are principally used for pasturage, and are famous for their mutton. Sussex is remarkably rich in antiquities. It is divided into East and West Sussex, and has two county towns, Chichester and Lewes; the other towns of greatest importance are Brighton, Hastings, New Shoreham, Rye, Arundel, and Newhaven.

SUTHERLAND, a N. county of Scotland, bordering on the Pentland frith, Caithness, the North sea, Ross-shire, and the Minch; area, 1,886 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 24,817. Several small islands which lie off the N. and W. coasts are included in the county. On these sides the coasts are generally high and bold, and are indented by numerous arms of the sea; but that on the east is flat with a low sandy beach. The interior is mountainous, the highest summit being 3,280 ft. above the sea. The rivers are all small with short courses, but there are numerous lakes. The principal crops are oats, barley, and potatoes. Sheep farming is extensively carried on. Game, including deer, is abundant. Dornoch, the capital, is the only town. Great improvements were made by the dukes of Sutherland, proprietors of most of the county, aided by parliament.

SUTHERLAND, George Granville Leveson Gower, duke of, born Jan. 9, 1758, died July 19, 1833. He was a son of the marquis of Stafford, belonging to a family of historic distinction since the 14th century. He early entered the house of commons, and was ambassador in Paris from 1790 to 1799. In 1799 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Gower. In 1803 he inherited the vast estates of his uncle the duke of Bridgewater and of his father, which added to the Gower domain made him one of the richest men in the world. He extended his uncle's great picture gallery, and promoted the fine arts. He was created a duke Jan. 28, 1833. The Bridgewater estates passed to his second son Francis, afterward earl of Ellesmere, and the other property to the elder son,