creditor is not bound, so far as the surety is concerned, to pursue the ordinary legal remedies against the principal, yet he is bound, in respect to all remedies given him by way of pledge or security or by other act of the parties, to hold or pursue them diligently in behalf of the surety; and if he relinquish any such remedy without the knowledge or against the will of the surety, he shall lose his claim against the latter to the extent of the right surrendered. Question has often been made whether the creditor would not lose his right against the surety if the principal should become insolvent after a request by the surety (which was disregarded) that proceedings be immediately taken for collection; but it has generally been held that he did not, and that the remedy of the surety was to pay the debt and then proceed to collect of the principal. SURF BIRD (aphriza virgata, Gray), a wading bird of the plover family, and subfamily cincling or turnstones. The bill is about as long as the head, with vaulted obtuse tip and compressed sides; wings long and pointed, with the first quill the longest; tail moderate and even; tarsi as long as middle toe, robust, with small irregular scales; toes long, free at the base, sides of anterior ones margined, and hind one elevated, slender, and partly resting on the ground. It is about 10 in. long, with the wing 7 in.; dark brown above, lighter on the wing coverts, with white spots and stripes on the head and neck; upper tail coverts and basal half of tail white, the latter terminated with brownish black; under parts white, tinged with ashy in front, each feather having a brownish black crescent. It is found on the Pacific coast of North and South America, and in the Hawaiian islands, and is migratory. SURGEON, a bird of the stork family. See JACANA. SURGERY, or Chirurgery (Gr. xeip, the hand, and pyov, labor), that department of the art of healing which appertains to the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of the class of diseases which require manual or instrumental measures for their cure. The sphere of surgery is more limited and at the same time more accurately defined than that of medicine. Surgery divides tissues or parts improperly united, and unites those which have been divided when they should remain in union; separates whatever has become dangerous or inconvenient to the patient; removes foreign bodies, or parts of the body which from disease or loss of vitality have become foreign, whenever they exert a hurtful influence on the animal economy; restores to their cavity or replaces in their normal position portions of the body which have become displaced; checks the loss of blood from wounded or divided blood vessels; reduces inflammations, or removes the purulent or phlegmonous matter which may have been deposited by them; repairs and corrects deformities and distortions; and effects the replacement of lost tissues. Its means of accomplishing these results are the hand, lint, bandages, and apparatus of various kinds, cutting, crushing, and probing instruments, catheters, bougies, sounds, forceps, specula, &c., and the various forms of cauteries, direct and indirect, liquid and solid.-The earliest surgeons of whom there is any record were the Egyptian priests. According to Herodotus, we owe to them the use of the moxa and the adaptation of artificial limbs. Among the ancient Hebrews there is but little evidence of surgical skill, and that little was confined to the priests. In Greece, surgery is as ancient as the mythic period of its history. Chiron the centaur, born in Thessaly, and skilful in the application of soothing herbs to wounds and bruises, is the legendary father of Greek surgery. But Esculapius, the son of Apollo, said by some to have been the pupil of Chiron, though others call him his predecessor and superior, won the highest fame in that early time for surgical skill. He is said to have been deified on account of his wonderful success about 50 years before the Trojan war. Temples were reared for his worship, which became the repositories of surgical knowledge, at Epidaurus, Rhodes, Cnidus, Cos, and Pergamus. Homer has immortalized his two sons, Podalirius and Machaon, the companions of Agamemnon in the Trojan war, where they rendered essential service in healing the wounds of the Grecian heroes. The Asclepiades, or reputed descendants of Esculapius, retained the monopoly of surgery as well as medicine in their family. They had established in this period three schools of medicine, at Rhodes, Cnidus, and Cos. Pythagoras, in the 6th century B. C., established at Crotona a new school of medicine, in which his peculiar philosophy was probably applied to the art of healing; among its early pupils was Democedes, eminent as a surgeon, who when taken captive by the Persians reduced the dislocated ankle of Darius, and removed or in some way cured the cancerous breast of his queen Atossa, after the Egyptian physicians had failed. The want of anatomical knowledge, no dissections being allowed, was a fatal bar to any considerable progress in surgery. Hippocrates (about 400 B. C.) more than any of his predecessors advanced surgical treatment; he reduced dislocations and adjusted fractures, used the trephine, applied the forceps in accouchement, made incisions into the kidney for the removal of calculi, performed amputations, and perforated the cavity of the ribs in empyema and hydrothorax. Interdicted from human dissection, he practised the dissection of the ape tribe as nearest to man in anatomical structure, and thus obtained much knowledge. For a century after the death of Hippocrates we meet few names of note in surgery. The founding of the Alexandrian school under Ptolemy Soter about 300 B. C. was another important epoch in the advance of the art. Herophilus and Erasistratus, the two great leaders of the medical school of cal in preference to general bleeding, as more that university, if it may be so called, were effective in reducing local inflammation; reeminent both as physicians and surgeons; sorted to copious venesection to accelerate the with them commenced the practice of human painful descent of calculi through the ureters; dissections. The extirpation of the spleen, opened internal abscesses with caustics; deand the application of remedies direct to scir- fined the points for performing paracentesis rhosities and tumors of that viscus and of the in ascites; made his incision in lithotomy on liver, were among the bold operations of Era- one side of the raphe instead of the centre sistratus. To him also belongs the invention as Celsus had recommended; practised both and application of the catheter in cases of re- laryngotomy and tracheotomy, the latter as a tention of urine. The pupils of these eminent means of carrying on respiration during ocsurgeons invented bandages of peculiar forms, clusion of the larynx; treated of fractures of and introduced the tourniquet and contri- the patella; and was the originator of the obvances for reducing dislocations of the femur. stetric operation of embryotomy.-The AraOne of them, Ammonius, employed an instru- bian physicians, who rose into distinction as ment for lithontriptic purposes, anticipating those of the West declined in reputation, did Civiale's process.-Rome in the first 700 years little for surgery. Rhazes (about 900) described of its history produced no surgeon of note. for the first time spina centosa and spina bifida, Celsus, who flourished about the beginning of cauterized the wounds from the bites of rabid the Christian era, was the greatest of the sur- animals, opposed the use of the knife in cangeons of ancient Rome, and his observations cer except when limited and when the whole on injuries of the head, on cataract, on the tumor could be removed, and gave a clear and ligature of wounded arteries, hernia, lithoto- satisfactory description of the treatment of my, fractures and dislocations, amputations, hernia. Avicenna (died about 1036) introand carbuncle, show considerable knowledge. duced the flexible catheter. Albucasis (died Aretæus, the first to use the cantharides blis- about 1106) introduced an instrument for the ter, Heliodorus, Rufus the Ephesian, all of cure of fistula lachrymalis, invented the prowhom flourished between A. D. 50 and 120, bang, and in wounds of the intestine practised and after them Antyllus, added to the surgical union of the divided parts by suture with sucknowledge of the time new views of the treat- cess.-In Catholic Europe medical practice and ment of injuries of the head, the resort to what of surgery remained was mostly in the arteriotomy instead of venesection in sudden hands of the clergy until, by the edict of the emergencies of inflammatory action, bronchot- council of Tours in 1163, they were interdicted omy in some acute diseases of the throat, the from all surgical practice. The Jews were at radical cure of hydrocele by free incision of this period and for a century or two later in the parts, and a more thorough investigation high repute as physicians, but they seem to of diseases of the kidneys and bladder. Galen have had a dislike to surgery. Guy de Chaudevoted more attention to medicine than sur- liac, a priest, compiled from the Greek and gery, but his observations on hernia, on luxa- Arabian authors the earliest work of modern tion of the femur backward, and on the appli- times on surgery, but with very little judgcation of the trephine to the sternum in em- ment of what was worth retaining. For two pyema, are of importance. In the early period centuries and more surgery was mainly in the of Christianity surgery languished; the early hands of the illiterate barber surgeons. The Christians opposed dissection as strongly as revival of surgical science dates from the apthe pagans, and by attributing the power of pearance of Vesalius (died 1564) as a teacher of healing wounds to martyrs and their relics dis- anatomy in Italy, followed soon after by Fallocouraged all efforts at improvement in surgical pius and Eustachius. Surgery was then for the science. The first eminent name among the first time put upon a sound and scientific basis, surgeons of the dark ages is Aëtius (500 to that of careful dissection, and Ambroise Paré, 550), whose surgical writings are numerous a French army surgeon who had educated himand valuable. He practised scarification of the self in anatomical science, was the first of its extremities in anasarca, operated for aneurism, great lights. He was surgeon successively to endeavored to dissolve urinary calculi by in- four kings of France, and was attached to the ternal remedies, discussed hernia with great French armies as surgeon-general down to 1569. ability, and wrote on encysted tumors, inju- To him we owe the revival and improvement ries to nerves and tendons, diseases of the of the practice of tying the arteries after opeyes, &c. Alexander of Tralles, a younger erations or wounds, instead of cauterizing them contemporary of Aëtius, wrote treatises, now with hot iron or boiling oil. The pupils of lost, on diseases of the eye and on fractures, Paré added little lustre to their master's name; which were highly commended for their ori- but in Italy at the close of the 16th century ginality by some of his successors. Paulus Fabricius ab Acquapendente flourished at PaEgineta, in the 7th century, was a surgeon of dua, and his Opera Chirurgica, the first really eminence and considerable originality. His valuable treatise on surgery of modern times, sixth book has been considered by many as passed through 17 editions. He was the prethe best body of surgical knowledge prior to ceptor of Harvey. Wiseman, sergeant surthe revival of letters. He recommended topi-geon to Charles II., was the first eminent sur gical writer and practitioner in England. His recommendation of immediate amputation in military practice, when the preservation of the limb was impossible, has been followed from that time to the present. He left eight treatises on surgery, which are not without value even at the present day. The flap operation in amputation is claimed for James Young, an English surgeon contemporary with Wiseman, and also for two French surgeons, Verduin and Sabaurin, of the same period. In Germany during this century, Hildanus, Scultetus, Purmann, and Heister were the principal surgical writers and practitioners. In Italy the principal names of note toward the close of the 16th and in the 17th century were Taliacotius, the originator of the restorative surgery in Europe; Cæsar Magatus, who greatly simplified the treatment of wounds; and M. A. Severinus, who banished the salves and plasters which in Italy had usurped the place of operations. The 18th century witnessed a still greater advance in the science. In England, Percival Pott, well known for his investigation of that form of caries of the vertebra known by his name (see SPINAL DISEASES), and the most judicious writer of modern times on fractures, amputations, injuries of the head, and diseases of the spine; John and William Hunter, the former the greatest master of the principles of surgery in the profession; Cheselden and Douglas, both famous as lithotomists; and the two Monros, father and son, are among the great names of the surgical profession. In France flourished La Peyronie, at whose instance Louis XV. in 1731 founded the academy of surgery; Jean Louis Petit, the greatest French surgeon of the 18th century; Ledran, Garangeot, and the illustrious Desault, the originator of clinical surgical instruction and the inventor of numerous admirable apparatuses for the treatment of fracture. Among the celebrated surgeons of other European countries were Molinelli, Morgagni, Scarpa, Bertrandi, and Moscati in Italy; Deventer, Albinus, and Camper in Holland; and Platner, Röderer, Rambilla, Theden, and Richter in Germany. During the 18th century the ligature of aneurismal arteries of large size, the treatment of hernia and fistula in ano, the cure of fistula lachrymalis, and the skilful management of dangerous and difficult parturitions, were the most important branches of surgery in which there was a material advance from the preceding century; the proper construction of instruments also received great attention. The 19th century has, however, done more for the improvement of this science than all the centuries which have preceded it. In England, Abernethy, Sir Astley Cooper, Liston, and others of the highest reputation have passed away, and others hardly less eminent remain; in France, Dupuytren, Roux, Lisfranc, and Larrey have had no superiors either before or after them. The following may with propriety be particularized as among the improvements of the age in surgery: the introduction of anesthesia; resection of the bones at the joints; the preservation of the periosteum and consequent development of new bone; partial amputations of the foot, as instanced in the operation of Lisfranc for the removal of the metatarsus, and of Chopart, Symes, Malgaigne, and Pirigoff for disarticulation of tarsal bones; the amputations at the thigh and shoulder joints; the ligature of arteries within the trunk and immediately at their departure from it; the resection and removal of portions or even the whole of the upper or lower jaw; the operations for cleft or deficient velum palati or palatine vault; the opening by longitudinal section of the air passages at different points to avoid asphyxia; the resection and extirpation of the uterus, of the ovaries, and of the lower portion of the rectum; the introduction of the silver suture, especially in operations on the viscera, as for recto-vaginal and vesico-vaginal fistula; the adoption of the immovable apparatus for fractures; the processes for remedying disunited fracture; the substitution of milder means for the trephine in all except the most serious cases; the improved treatment of ulcers and abscesses; the cure of the most formidable aneurisms by the ligature of the carotid, subclavian, axillary, humeral, and external and internal iliacs; the treatment of varicose veins; the successful treatment of calculus by lithotrity, in consequence of the great improvements made in the processes and instruments; the diagnosis and treatment of tumors, whether encysted, fatty, vascular, or malignant; the cure of strabismus, and the generally improved treatment in diseases of the eye, including the invention of the ophthalmoscope by Helmholtz in 1851, and the reformation of ophthalmic medicine and surgery carried on by Von Graefe, Donders, Bowman, Toynbee, Wilde, Von Tröltsch, Politzer, and others; the restorative processes, by which the nose, lip, and other parts are reformed from adjacent tissues; the treatment of harelip and of club-foot; and the notable advance consequent upon the conservative treatment of gunshot and other wounds of the brain.-As from the nature of their duties suits for malpractice are more often brought against surgeons than against physicians, it will be appropriate here to speak of their legal obligations, though the same laws apply to practitioners in any of the branches of medicine. În undertaking the treatment of a patient, the surgeon enters into a legal obligation and assumes legal liabilities, which, though seldom expressly defined, are yet, in the apprehension of the law, fixed and certain. The law holds that he contracts for the possession of that reasonable degree of learning, skill, and experience which the members of his profession ordinarily possess. Those also who, like oculists, aurists, or. dentists, claim to be particularly conversant with and skilful in the treatment of the diseases of single organs, must be held Suricate (Ryzena capensis). to a peculiar responsibility. The same is true | excavates with its stout claws; the color is of surgeons of great pretensions in large cities grayish brown, tinged with yellow, with obas compared with those residing in remote and scure dark bands across the back. It is docile thinly settled districts. In undertaking a case, the surgeon also contracts that he will apply the skill which he possesses, whatever be its degree, with reasonable and ordinary diligence and care. Extraordinary care is no more implied than extraordinary skill; nor is the practitioner supposed to guarantee a cure, though he may if he chooses contract to effect a cure, and then he must answer for a failure. The practitioner's skill in any case will ordinarily be required to embrace those phases and phenomena which usually characterize the dominant disease; and any mischance which connects itself immediately with these will involve the question of skill. His diligence and care will be exercised in watching for and guarding against the accidental influences which, if overlooked, may delay or even prevent the restoration of the patient. If he have brought ordinary skill and care to the treatment of his case, the surgeon is not responsible for want of success nor for mistakes in cases of real doubt and uncertainty. The surgeon's liability in cases of malpractice is ordinarily only a civil one, and the injury he does can usually be compensated by damages. But, in cases where death has followed the treatment, and it has seemed to be the direct consequence of the treatment, there have been, not unfrequently, charges of criminal malpractice preferred against the medical practitioner. To constitute a crime, there must be a malicious or criminal intent. This intent may exist in an actual design, or the law will infer it from gross rashness or want of circumspection.-Where no statutory prohibition intervenes, all regular and irregular practitioners are to be placed on the same footing. Leaving out of consideration cases of express malice, which would hardly be included under the designation of malpractice, our topic is reduced to those cases in which the charge is founded upon gross ignorance, gross negligence, or gross rashness. With particular reference to the charge of manslaughter, the law, especially in England, is that "if one, whether a medical man or not, profess to deal with the life or health of another, he is bound to use competent skill and sufficient attention; and if he cause the death of the other through a gross want of either of these, he will be guilty of manslaughter;" or as an eminent American authority, Mr. Bishop, states the law: "The carelessness in a medical man which, if death follow, will render him liable for manslaughter, is gross carelessness, or, as it is more strongly expressed, the grossest ignorance or most criminal inattention." and intelligent, and is often domesticated for the destruction of vermin. SURINAM, or Dutch Guiana. See GUIANA. SURINAM, a river of Dutch Guiana, which rises in the mountains on the S. frontier, flows through the centre of the colony, and falls into the Atlantic about 10 m. below Paramaribo after a course of about 300 m. It has several tributaries, and is navigable for large vessels about 30 m. from its mouth. SURICATE, a carnivorous mammal of South Africa, coming near the ichneumons. It is the ryzana (suricata) capensis (Ill.), and is sometimes called zenick. It is about a foot long, with a tail of 6 or 8 in., and about 6 in. high; it is nocturnal, dwelling in burrows which it SURREY, a S. E. county of England, bordering on Middlesex (from which it is separated by the Thames), Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, and Berkshire; area, 748 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 1,090,270. That part of the county which lies on the Thames, with much of the land on the borders, is exceedingly fertile. Parts of the shire are famed for the beauty of their scenery. The principal streams are the Wey, Mole, and Wandle, which fall into the Thames. There are extensive market gardens and flower farms, where besides flowers medicinal herbs are raised in large quantities. Numerous canals and railroads intersect the county. Silk, woollen goods, hosiery, paper, earthenware, leather, and ale are manufactured. Besides Southwark, Lambeth, and other portions of London, the most important places are the three county towns, Guildford, Croydon, and Kingston, and Epsom, Reigate, Farnham, and Godalming. SURREY, Henry Howard, earl of, an English poet, born about 1516, beheaded on Tower hill, London, Jan. 21, 1547. He was the eldest son of Thomas Howard, third duke of Norfolk, and passed his youth at the court of Henry VIII. In 1532 he married the daughter of the earl of Oxford, and went to France with the duke of Richmond. He assisted in the trial of Anne Boleyn in 1536, served in France in 1540, and was imprisoned for some wild irregularities in 1543. In 1544 he commanded in France, and earned the rank of field marshal. After the taking of Boulogne he became its governor, and continued the SURROGATE. See PROBATE. | war with advantage until January, 1546, when preparing maps. The ancient science of gehe met with a reverse. A panic among his ometry grew out of the practice of surveying, troops caused a failure to intercept a convoy and now embodies the mathematical princiof provisions near St. Etienne, and his rival, ples upon which the work is conducted. This the earl of Hertford, afterward the protec- science was cultivated by the Egyptians at a tor Somerset, induced the king to recall him very early period, and many of the old Greek to England. Surrey's comments on this ac- writers ascribe its origin to changes which tion offended Henry, who imprisoned him for annually took place from the inundation of a short time in the tower. The Hertford fac- the Nile, and to the consequent necessity of tion lost no opportunity to excite the fears of adjusting the claims of each person respecting the king, and on Dec. 12, 1546, Surrey with the limits of lands. The progress of the art his father was again arrested on a charge of of surveying to its higher application in detertreason, for having quartered the royal arms mining the figure of the earth has been traced with his own. Surrey in an eloquent defence in the article EARTH; and the operations in proved conclusively his right to assume the trigonometrical surveys upon a grand scale are royal arms; yet he was condemned and exe- described under COAST SURVEY.-The systems cuted about a week before the death of the of surveying may be classed according to its king. His works consist of sonnets, amatory special objects; as land surveying, for deterverses, elegies, paraphrases from the Scriptures, mining the contents of areas, or dividing tracts and translations of the second and fourth books into lots of smaller dimensions; topographical of the Eneid, and afford the first instance of surveying, which includes the measurement the use of the sonnet and of blank verse in of horizontal lines and angles, and the variaEnglish poetry. The first edition of his son- tions of level, so that the superficial inequalinets was published by Richard Tottel in 1557. ties may be graphically represented; hydroEditions of his works, with those of Sir Thom-graphical or maritime surveying, the object of as Wyatt, and biographies, have been published which is the determination of the positions by George Frederick Nott, D. D. (2 vols. 4to, of channels, shoals, rocks, and the shore line; 1815-'16; new ed., 1871), Sir Harris Nicolas and mining surveying, for fixing the positions (1831), Prof. Child (Boston, 1854), and the of the underground works in mines, so that Rev. R. Gilfillan (Edinburgh, 1856). these can be correctly mapped. Surveys extending over large territories involve the consideration of the curvature of the earth and the use of spherical trigonometry, and are called geodetic in contradistinction from ordinary surveying over more limited areas, which may with sufficient accuracy be conducted without reference to the figure of the earth, and which may be termed plane surveying. (See GEODESY.) These systems all involve the same principles of measuring lines and angles between definite points upon the area included in the survey, and reproducing these upon paper, reduced to a convenient scale. Calculating the content of the area is commonly the conclusion of the work of land surveying. Tracts of any shape or size may be accurately surveyed, if tolerably. level and clear, with no other instrument than the surveyor's chain (see GUNTER, EDMUND); and for this may be substituted a measuring tape, a measured rope, or leather driving reins. This is done by measuring all the sides of the tract, and then diagonals from one corner to another, so selected as to divide the tract into triangles as nearly equilateral as possible. The number of diagonals will be two less than the number of sides. In using the chain it is to be kept as nearly horizontal as possible, or if the measurement is made on a slope the variation from the horizontal is to be determined and duly allowed. In case the corners are not visible from each other, intermediate points may be adopted and used for the terminations of lines from corners, the object being in every case to divide the tract into triangles of which the sides are all measured. Proof lines measured SURRY. I. A S. E. county of Virginia, bounded N. E. by James river and S. W. by Blackwater river; area, 340 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 5,585, of whom 3,192 were colored. The surface is moderately hilly and the soil fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 85,995 bushels of Indian corn, 44,666 of peas and beans, 15,773 of Irish and 3,381 of sweet potatoes, and 1,104 lbs. of wool. There were 452 horses, 724 milch cows, 1,113 other cattle, 1,032 sheep, and 4,073 swine. Capital, Surry Court House. II. A N. W. county of North Carolina, bordering on Virginia, bounded S. by the Yadkin and drained by Ararat and Fisher rivers; area, about 500 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 11,252, of whom 1,560 were colored. The surface is in part mountainous and generally hilly. Ararat or Pilot mountain in the southeast is the highest peak in this region. The chief productions in 1870 were 26,701 bushels of wheat, 18,029 of rye, 190,171 of Indian corn, 39,321 of oats, 14,707 of Irish and 15,368 of sweet potatoes, 254,286 lbs. of tobacco, 12,690 of wool, 81,238 of butter, 5,183 of flax, 68,658 of honey, and 9,681 gallons of sorghum molasses. There were 1,129 horses, 2,178 milch cows, 3,989 other cattle, 6,414 sheep, and 11,634 swine; 3 manufactories of cotton goods, 5 of chewing tobacco, and 4 flour mills. Capital, Dobson. SURVEYING (Fr. survoir, to overlook), the art of measuring portions of the surface of the earth, either for the purpose of calculating the contents of areas, of laying out tracts of required extent, of establishing roads, or of |