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indication of the general direction of speculative thought, and the more prominent stages in its line of progressive develop

ment.

The first inquiries were ontological. The beginnings of existence were sought, and a science of cosmology attempted. The ultimate principle of things, but crudely conceived, and supposed to exist under a material form, was sought amid physical elements. Thales found the primum mobile in water, Anaxamines in air, and Heraclitus Crude as these speculations of the Ionian school may appear to us, standing in the clearer light, they present a series of slowly advancing conceptions; the material. element gradually giving way, until we come to the more spiritualistic philosophy of the mathematicians. This school found the first principle in an abstraction; but it was an abstraction involving the conception of the Infinite, which was an idea far above the plans of Ionian speculation. Pythagoras thought he detected the Principia in numbers, and from their combinations he constructed the universe. The absolute and unchangeable existence was one. This numerical unity developed itself phenominally in multiplicity, and thus comes the world of relative and manifold existence.

The speculations of Pythagoras and his school were lofty and profound, but there was no conception of mind; no recognition of the creative and self-existent vous in their severely deductive processes. It is in the succeeding school of the Eleatics that we find the attribute of intelligence given to the Infinite, and a reference of creation to one eternally-existent and self-conscious mind as its cause. This conception of the Eleatics was a great advance upon all previous thinking, and marks an era in the history of Philosophy. But it should be observed that this idea of mind as cause was not very clearly differenced from creation as effect. The Infinite was One, but it was also All; and hence the phenomenal and the metaphenomenal were but parts of the same flowing life. There was, in truth, a reappearance here of the Indian doctrine of Emanation, and, in this absorption of the finite in the infinite, the integrity of selfconsciousness and the individual will seemed likely to be lost in the recurring cycles of Oriental thought. An oppressive and saddening sense of the Infinite began to

develop once more its fatal results of indifference and self-abandonment, and a system of Pantheism-alien to the vigor of Greek thought-became predominant, in which all the tides and forces of individual being were lost in the vaster circulations of the Infinite Energy.

But it was not in the courses of destiny and the law of development that Philosophy should thus relapse into the imbecility of its youth.

A new direction was communicated to speculative thought, and a new spirit awakened, by which its vigor and vitality were conserved.

Thus far the method of inquiry had been ontological, and had resulted, as that method must ever result when exclusively employed, in the establishment, by the Eleatics, of a system of pantheistic fatalism. But with the close of that school a new direction and impulse was given to speculation, by the introduction of the psychological method. Philosophy hitherto had concerned itself with but one term of the relation which it sought to determine. It began to perceive, at last, that a knowledge of the nature and origin of the universe was little likely to be gained without some better acquaintance with those faculties by which such knowledge was to be apprehended. For what confidence could it have in the validity of its conclusions, without some criteria or verification? Supposing a science of ontology possible, it is clear that psychology must determine its legitimacy. With the perception of this fact commenced an inquiry into the nature and capacities of the human mindan inquiry which Philosophy has so vigorously prosecuted through all the lines of its subsequent history. Is there any ground of certitude and authority in human knowledge? Has the understanding any faculty for the apprehension of absolute truth? were questions whose solution seemed to condition all further advance.

Parmenides, one of the last of the Eleatics, was the first to perceive the difficulty which these preliminary inquiries raised, and he endeavored to meet it by his important distinction between semi-knowledge, which is but opinion, and knowledge, given in the reason, which is truth. By the former, we have cognizance of a simply relational existence, more or less modified by the conditions of our own subjectivity; while the

ingeniously reproduced in the philosophy of Liebnitz; and his theory of ideas, which may be seen reflected in the sensational system of Locke; these were but the more complete development of those elements of thought we have already indicated.

latter acquaints us with an existence which | a directive wisdom in the arrangement of is absolute. The distinction thus made in primordial elements, but maintaining an the sources of knowledge, marks an impor- existence entirely distinct from his creations. tant transition-point in the progress of specu- Upon the immediate successors of Anaxagolation. It gave a determination to all suc- ras we must not dwell. Empedocles, with ceeding inquiry, and laid the foundation of his sweeping eclecticism, making earth, air, those four great systems of philosophy whose fire and water the prima materia, with love struggles for the supremacy have entered so as the combinative and harmoniously dislargely into the biographic history of the posing agency, (a conception of Deity pointworld. Parmenides suspicioned the object-ing to a recognition of the moral element,) ive validity of the ideas given in sense, and teaching that knowledge and existence were indicated a source of knowledge independent correlatives, and announcing that principle, of sensation. His speculations were vague, so fruitful of fancies in modern speculations, and abounded with notions extremely fanci- that like can only be known by like; Demoful; but they contained the initial develop-critus and his celebrated atomic theory, so ments of a great truth, and served to introduce upon the arena of controversy the system of idealism, around which Plato threw the splendors of his genius, and which modern Germany has enriched with its best and proudest names. The discussion thus commenced by the later Eleatics, regarding Philosophy now fell into the hands of the source and authority of ideas, was con- the Sophists-those boasting athletes of intinued by their successors. Ontological intellect, who gloried in "making the worse quiries, however, were still prosecuted, but appear the better reason," and truth and under psychological scrutiny and tests. justice but opinion and law. In identifying Heraclitus, whose ontology identifies him thought and sensation, and assuming man with the Ionian school, maintained the ex- as the measure of all existence, they struck clusiveness and validity of sense-knowledge, at the foundations of truth and virtue : denying to the reason any thing more than making the one a delusion and the other a a mere regulative function. He then laid name. Not long, however, was Philosophy the foundation of sensationalism, or at least doomed to so degrading a bondage. Her gave to the principles of that system their deliverer came in the person of one whose first philosophical statement. Anaxagoras name will live in grateful remembrance as succeeded, denying with Heraclitus any other long as truth may claim a disciple or virthan a sensational source of ideas, but at the tue a worshipper. Socrates appeared, stripsame time denying their authority, and thus ping from the Sophists their thin guise of extending his system to a negation of all rhetorical pretension, and teaching the eterground of certitude for the knowledge given nal sanctions of justice and right. He asin sense. Here, then, skepticism, the third serted the possibility of truth and the great system of philosophy, makes its ap- supremacy of virtue, and clothed their beaupearance. It is to be noted, however, that tiful and blending forms in all the loveliness the skepticism of Anaxagoras was of a purely of their own essential and resplendent naphilosophical nature. It questioned the au- ture. Socrates' teachings were altogether thority of reason, and the validity of its ethical in their nature. He laid the founjudgments, but did not extend to the denial dations of moral science, but established no of an intelligent first cause. On the con- distinct philosophical system. He was a trary, his conceptions of Deity were far in moralist, but a moralist with a method which advance of all preceding philosophers. They worked a total revolution in the metaphysiwere free from the materialism of the Ion- cal speculations of his time. Under the ians, the chilling obstructions of the Math-guidance of that method, Philosophy proseematicians, and the pantheism of the Elea-cuted its inquiries upon far higher grounds. tics. He did not identify the universe with Sensationalism gave way before the applicaGod, nor reduce his infinity to a barren tion of those searching dialectics which disnegation; but he conceived him as an inde- closed in the innermost depths of consciouspendent and designing intelligence, exertingness a sanctuary of truth, which the phe

that purer archetypal creation to which it is related by so infinite a suggestiveness. The individual soul thus shares in the life of the Universal. Around every point and particle cluster the universal laws. In the smallest fractional part reappears entire the beauty and splendor of the infinite whole.

Plato's Ideal Theory has long since perished. It was the brilliant but fanciful creation of a great mind, seeking earnestly for the truth. But around it were gathered so many noble and truthful thoughts, and so many just and uplifting conceptions, that it will ever be regarded, by the lover of virtue and thought, as a system grand and beautiful, even though abandoned and in ruins.

nomena of sense could never penetrate, nor | forms of being, is awakened, through the the caprices of opinion ever disturb. Skep- suggestions of sensible phenomena, to a ticism expired in the blaze of those sublime recollection of that diviner existence of truths, which unveiled the mysteries of a which it formerly had immediate cognizance spiritual existence, and proclaimed the im- and formed a component part. In the mutable sanctions of divine law. Good, the Beautiful, and the True, it recogThe revolution which Socrates began, his nizes its lost inheritance, which, in plaints illustrious disciple completed. Plato was and aspirations, it is ever seeking to regain. the most accomplished and imperial intellect The poverty and phantom-like nature of of his time. He was the blossoming of sensible phenomena is thus taught; but it Greek culture-"the bright, consummate finds an equivalent in the wonderful signififlower" of Hellenic thought. In his won-cance which it takes, as the dim reflection of derful brain were the fires of genius and the elaborated treasures of toil. "When Plato came, a man who could see two sides of a thing was born." Imbued with the ethical doctrines of his loved and venerated master, and pursuing his method, he built up a philosophical system which has occupied a wider space in the world's thought than the creations of any other single intellect of ancient or modern times. "His sentences contain the culture of nations. They have been the corner-stone of schools and the fountain-head of literatures." With a clear perception of the weakness of the Sensational and Skeptical systems, he adopted the principles of Idealism, and brought to their support all the wealth of his accomplished and cultured mind. In his celebrated theory of Ideas we have his opinion of the sources and authority of knowledge, and the relations of the individual to the universal. He distinguishes between "opinion, of which all men have a share, and reason, which belongs only to the Gods and some small portion of mankind." The incertitude of senseknowledge is maintained, but a source of knowledge independent of sense is affirmed. There is a sensible world-a world of phe-brightness and perfection of his own nature, nomena and appearance. And there is also dwells the absolute and uncreated God. "In a world of Ideas-real, intelligible, and ab- the midst of the sun is the light; in the solute. In this lower and weary kingdom midst of the light is truth; and in the midst of sense and time, we mourn our exile from of truth dwells the imperishable Being." a higher estate. Limited to a knowledge of The influence of Plato upon his own and particulars and relative existence, we grope succeeding times can never be fully estimaour way amid the shadows and reflected ted. His genius yet lives, not in recollection light, but with occasional exaltations of alone, but in the finer phrases of our intelvision which lift us into the higher world of lectual life. In his union of the zo ayator and Ideas, where we are admitted to a percep- the ro xatov, his ideas of the nature and tion of universal and absolute being. The office of evil, and his identification, in virtue medium by which we come to a knowledge and science and art, of the good, the beautiof this clearer realm of realities and abiding ful, and the true, we may recognize the existence is the Reason, or rather, Remi-source of many of the finest conceptions in niscence; for the soul, having been once modern culture and thought.

In the theology of his system, Plato ranks above all the thinkers of antiquity. His conceptions of Deity were so just and true, that he has been called the Christian Philosopher; and there is much reason to conclude that modern faith is more indebted to Plato for some portions of its creed than it would be ready to admit. Beyond and above the world of fleeting appearance lies, in serene and undimmed light, the world of Ideas. Beyond and above the world of Ideas, in the

identified with the original sources and higher | Philosophy passed her sceptre from

VOL. IX. NO. I. NEW SERIES.

5

from Greece, she fled to Alexandria, and then summoned to her aid a new and powerful ally. Thus far she had relied upon Reason alone for the solution of her enigmas. But Reason had failed in every attempt. She now invokes the assistance of

Faith.

With this alliance a new and fourth great system comes into being. That sys tem is Mysticism. In the school of the NeoPlatonists the new philosophy is announced, and Philo, Porphyry, Proclus and Plotinus, become the teachers of its doctrines and its claims. The reports of the senses are deceptive; the conclusions of reason are uncertain; but there is a faculty higher than sense and clearer than reason, which gives absolute truth. That faculty is Faith.

Plato to Aristotle. The renowned Stagyrite) abandon her quest. The doubts and dehas been called the "Secretary of Nature," nials of the Academicians might depress, but and his vast and comprehensive knowledge they could not destroy her hope. Driven would seem to entitle him to the appellation. He was as much distinguished for breadth of understanding, as Plato for height. The disciple succeeded to his master's fame, but he did not inherit his system. Idealism found in Plato its ablest advocate, it met in Aristotle its most powerful foe. That splendid structure which the former had carried to so towering a height, the latter left in ruins. The Ideas to which Plato had given so commanding a position, proved not beyond the range of Aristotle's severe and well-directed logic. He made sad havoc in the realm of the Universals, and showed the objective existence of abstract archetypal Ideas to be exceedingly problematical. As the ideal world of Plato was thus reduced to a purely subjective existence in his own conceptions, it was concluded-though illogically enough-that there could be no source of ideas independent of sensation. Hence Sensationalism awoke again into life, and became, under Aristotle, the predominant system. His famous dictum, "Nihil in intellectu, quod non prius in sensu," became the great canon of the Sensational school, which has passed to the authority of a pronunciamento, and served both as premises and proof with some of his modern followers.

With Sensationalism again enthroned, Skepticism naturally followed. For if we can have no ideas but such as are ultimately given in sensations, and sensation being but an affection of the precipient mind, with no ascertainable correspondence to its phenomenal eause, it follows that there can be no ground of certitude for our knowledge, nor any possibility of absolute science. Truth, therefore, is resolved into opinion, and right and wrong become mere conventional distinctions, adopted for convenience, but founded upon no immutable principles. Skepticism, thus equipped from the armory of the Sensationalists, and under the guidance of Pyrrho, entered upon its crusade of doubt. It succeeded in destroying all confidence in the reports of Reason or Sense, until, in the school of the New Academy, whence it drew its most polished and effective armor, it completed its conquest over Morals, and Science, and Faith.

But Philosophy was not thus destined to

Like can be known only by like. Knowledge and existence are correlative. Reason, then, can never give a knowledge of the Absolute, for that is unconditional and infinite, while Reason is limited and finite. But Faith lifts the finite above limitation, identifies the individual and the universal, and blends subject and object in the unity of pure and immediate apperception. Not through toilsome processes of induction, not from close and cautious demonstration comes the hidden truth and the secret law; but in the flashes of Intuition, the exaltations of Vision, and the rapt and gleaming moments of Ecstacy, when the soul loses its personality and mingles with the Universal Soul, and knowledge and being are one.

In the light of these sublime visions, Philosophy sees the unfolding of her mysteries. The wide and wondrous universe of being becomes a transparency, and its hidden laws and relations surrender their well-kept secrets. In "the flight of the alone to the Alone," the Infinite Unity is dissolved, and the process of its triple manifestation traced as with a pencil of light.

Philosophy had thus completed its appointed cycle, and evolved its four great systems of thought. Their further development on the field of modern history, presents a subject too vast for discussion here. The limits of this paper will permit but an outline of the course of speculation.

From the fall of the Alexandrian school and the rise of Christianity to the sixteenth

century, Philosophy was occupied with the bitter contentions of the Nominalists and Realists, and the word-juggleries of Scholastics and Schoolmen.

germs of a more gross and noxious development of Sensationalism than the world had yet seen. His successors were not long in pushing his philosophy to its legitimate as The arrival of Descartes marks a new era. well as illegitimate results. Hartley and He was to speculative philosophy what his "Vibratory Hypothesis," by which all Bacon was to physical science. He estab- mental phenomena were resolved into nervlished a new method, or rather, like Bacon, ous vibrations and the relics of sensation; he recast and perfected the old. Commenc- Priestley, identifying thought with sensation, ing with his famous Enthymeme, "cogito and referring them, with Hobbes, to the ergo sum," as the only unsuspicioned fact motion of material particles in the nerves of existence, he proceeded by an à priori or brain; Darwin, reducing all mind, inprocess of rigid deduction to the construc- cluding the Infinite, to nature and organic tion of a complete system of being. He processes, and banishing spirit from the found in consciousness and the primitive universe-these were but the natural selaws of the understanding the elements of quents of that system, in whose milder statethought and the criteria of truth, by ment by Locke were the elements of that which he determined the existence of a Materialistic and Necessarian school, of which Deity and the nature of the universe. Ideal- Horne Tooke became the grammarian, Goodism thus again reappeared, maintained upon win the moralist, and Jeremy Bentham the more substantial grounds, and prepared to politician. It was on the Continent, however, engage in a vigorous contest for the su- and among the French Ideologists, that this premacy. Spinosa and Malebranche suc- philosophy reached its last and perfected ceeded, pushing the system of Descartes to development. It was reserved for Helvetius, its extreme and pantheistical development. Condillac, Cabanis, De Tracy, and d'HolThe Sensationalists sunk God in Nature. bach, to show the precise process by which These extreme Idealists merged nature in sensations become transformed into all the God. In the line of Cartesian speculation, complex mental phenomena of thought, Leibnitz ranks next, if not above the philo- emotion, and will; to demonstrate under sopher of Tourraine. In his doctrine of the scalpel that the brain secretes thought microcosmal monads and their "preëstab-precisely as the liver secretes bile, and to lished harmony," and in the development of proclaim a system of morals so gross and his theory of Optimism, we recognize the selfish, that Voltaire himself pronounced it creations of a vigorous and profound thinker. abominable for its immorality. We cannot now dwell upon his ingenious and When all ideas were thus reduced to phyelaborate system; but we may note that, in siological processes and the action of bodily resolving nature into a collection of dynam-functions, a challenge to their validity natuical self-developing forces, and making it homogeneous with spirit, the two differing only as conscious and unconscious monads, he gave a determination to some of the most interesting speculations in modern science.

Idealism was not long permitted an unchallenged supremacy. Extreme development in one direction begat a correspondent movement in another. Sensationalism again appeared, and in the powerful advocacy of Gassendi and Hobbes, it promised a universal dominion. In England, Locke became its distinguished champion, and under his statement and direction it assumed its mildest and most acceptable phase. But in the principles which he established, but which he did not fully unfold, were the

rally followed. Without some other criteria of verification than sensible organic impressions, there could be no basis of authority for knowledge. Experience alone never could give necessary truth, for those fundamental momenta of thought, upon which the perception of such truth was conditional, were obviously beyond the range of sensible impressions. The Skepticism of Hume, therefore, was a legitimate product of the Sensual Philosophy. And in striking so boldly at the legitimacy of all knowledge, by his denial of causation and a Creative Intelligence, he was but completing the work which Condillac and his school had begun.

The appearance of Germany upon the field of controversy was the commencement of a new movement. Characterized by a pro

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