struction; especially is this statement true of the Douglas fir. Aside from general construction work, spruce is by far the most important of the pulp woods, hemlock is also an important pulp wood, and cedar, because of its high power of resistance to decay, is especially adapted to use as shingles and telegraph, telephone, trolley, and electricfacturing chests for storing clothing, its pungent odor affording a protection against moths.

1899.

LOGWOOD. See EXTRACTS, DYEING AND TANNING.

LUMBER AND LOGS. Logs are the boles or trunks of trees not farther advanced in manufacture than is implied by the removal of the limbs. Common lengths are 8, 16, and 32 feet. Logs of relatively small diameter, 18 feet or more in length, with little taper, are known as poles; logs with more taper and not generally as straight as poles are known as piling. The terms timber and lumber overlap. Timber is the broader term, including at the one extreme a stand of growing trees of merchantable size and at the other the same trees sawed or hewn and squared in large diameter for construction purposes. Ordinarily the pieces of smaller cross section, such as boards, planks, clapboards or siding, flooring, and ceiling are known as lumber, while the term "dimension" is applied to pieces of larger cross section, such as studding, joists, rafters, and deals.

Production. The States of greatest importance in production in 1921 (figures in billions of board feet) were: Washington, 3.8; Louisiana, 3.2; Mississippi, 2; Oregon, 2: Texas, 1.5; Alabama, 1.3; California, 1.3; and Arkansas, 1.3. The South and Pacific Northwest constitute the chief regions of production.

Of the total cut (1921) yellow pine formed 41.4 per cent: Douglas fir, 17.2 per cent; oak, 5.9 per cent; white pine, 4.7 per cent; western yellow pine, 4.6 per cent; hemlock, 4.4 per cent; cypress, 2.9 per cent; red gum, 2.5 per cent; spruce, 2.3 per cent; maple, 2.3 per cent; and all other species, 11.8 per cent.

The utilization of wood from the forests each year is the equivalent of 45,680,000,000 board feet. Of this amount approximately 76.6 per cent is in the form of lumber; 5.8 per cent as hewed ties; 3.5 per cent as pulp wood; 1.6 per cent as round mine timbers: 1.8 per cent as fencing: 0.6 per cent as poles; 1.9 per cent as shingles: 1.9 per cent as vehicle stock, handles, woodenware, and furniture; 0.4 per cent as export logs and timber; 1.7 per cent as veneer logs: 2.7 per cent as cooperage stock; 0.2 per cent as piling: 0.2 per cent as lath; 0.8 per cent for distillation; 0.3 per cent for tanning extract; and 0.2 per cent for excelsior. The annual destruction of timber by fire and insects is equivalent to 4,750,000,000 board feet, or 10 per cent of the quantity utilized.

The lumber industry comprises five distinct branches: (1) The ownership of standing timber; (2) logging, or cutting trees into logs, and delivery to the sawmills: (3) manufacturing of logs into lumber, including sawing, seasoning, surfacing, and finishing into special forms; (4) wholesale lumber distribution; and (5) retail distribution. The production of lumber and its remanufactures ranks third among the general groups of manufactures in the employment of labor-839,000 employees, or 9 per cent of the wage earners in all manufacturing industries; it is fifth among manufacturing industries in value of annual product, $3,070,000,000 in 1919.

Spruce, Cedar, Western Hemlock, Etc., are softwoods furnishing lumber for general building con

Production.-Douglas fir (the most important commercially of the firs), western hemlock, and western red cedar are woods found chiefly in Washington, Oregon, and some other parts of the Northwest. Spruce is widely distributed throughout the whole northern portion of the United States. Other species of cedar also have a wide distribution. The following table shows for the years 1918 and 1921 the total cut of each of the woods mentioned and the cut in the States of Washington and Oregon (000 omitted):

Imports of logs of fir, spruce, cedar, and western hemlock are not segregated from the general imports of other logs. The distribution of these species in Canada, however, is somewhat similar to that of the United States. Douglas fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar grow for the most part in British Columbia, and hence importations of logs of these species would presumably compete with logs of the however, and other varieties of cedar grow also besame species in Washington and Oregon. Spruce,

tween the Rockies and the Atlantic seaboard and boundary. Especially are large quantities of spruce are imported into States all along the northeast logs imported as pulp wood, many of the pulp and paper mills in the Northeast being dependent in whole or in part upon such importations for their supply of raw material.

Exports of fir for the calendar years 1918-1923 are shown in the following table. Export of logs of the other species specified are not segregated.

because dutiable) should be added in order to obtain the imports and exports of wood only slightly advanced beyond the round-timber stage. Canadian percentages of exports and imports are given because of their importance and because it is with Canada that the most serious tariff problems arise. Over 90 per cent of the total log and lumber imports are from Canada. About 20 per cent of the total log and lumber exports are to Canada; the remaining 80 per cent are widely distributed, nearly all countries receiving part of their lumber supply from the United States. The chief purchasers in normal times are the United Kingdom, Mexico, Cuba, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Argentina, Panama, and the West Indies. The kinds of wood entering the export trade, with value in millions of dollars (1914), were: Yellow pine (long leaf, short leaf, and other), 23.1 (i. e., $23,100,000); oak, 10.6; fir, 8.7; gum, 2.2; redwood, 1.9; white pine, 1.6; poplar, 1.4; spruce, 0.5; cypress, 0.4; and all other, 6.9. Imports for the fiscal year 1914 are shown in the following table:

148, 938 94.4 1,073, 023 100.0

$1,657, 605 94.5

$7, 245, 466 100.0

530 $31, 203

487

$125, 459

583 $162, 528

$559,036 31.1

2,049

594

$696, 287

$473,557

$66, 570

Laths:

$9,462, 107 95.0

Thousand Value..

282,318

441, 567

1,398, 725

$964, 796 $4, 172, 595

$7,682, 286

1 Prior to 1919, figures for machine tools were included in "foundry and machine shop products."

Figures for 1921 do not include establishments reporting less than $5,000 in value; of these there were 18, with a combined product of $52,870 and an average of 16 wage earners.

Of the 348 establishments reporting products valued at $5,000 and more in 1921, 98 were located in Ohio; 37 in Massachusetts; 29 in Connecticut; 28 in New York; 25 in Michigan; 24 in Pennsylvania; 23 in Illinois; 17 in Wisconsin; 15 in Indiana; 12 each in New Jersey and Rhode Island; 7 each in Missouri and Vermont; 5 in Kentucky; 3 in New Hampshire; 2 in Minnesota; and 1 each in California, Delaware, Iowa, and Maryland. Imports.-Imports of machine tools in 1914 were valued at $263,053. Statistics for recent years are as follows:

ing the rank of major: 1877-1883, 1883-84, 18851891, Member of Congress; 1891-1896, Governor of Ohio: 1897-1901, President of the United States.

Known among the foremost orators of the House, his speeches on arbitration, civil-service administration, etc., received considerable attention. But his principal efforts were devoted to tariff legislation. In the campaign of 1888 he drafted, as chairman of the committee on resolutions, the tariff plank of the Republican platform. Ten years earlier, "in his speech on the Wood tariff bill, * * he put the tariff issue on a higher plane than it had occupied since the time of Henry Clay. In other words, he put From it above and beyond all other measures." this time forth McKinley continued to be one of the foremost advocates of high protection. As chairman of the Ways and Means Committee he was largely responsible for the tariff act of 1890, known as the McKinley Tariff. (See TARIFF HISTORY, UNITED STATES.)

Mc Kinley's economic views upon the tariff were largely empirical. Said he: "I would rather have my political economy founded upon the everyday experience of the puddler or the potter than the learning of the professor, or the farmer and the factory hand than the college faculty."

He approached the tariff as a problem of taxation as well as one of protection, and held that it was better to raise money by imports upon goods competitive to American industries than upon commodities not domestically produced. By the former means protection and revenues are simultaneously obtained. Furthermore, under a protective tariff the foreigner largely pays the tax.

"Our kind of tariff makes the competing foreign article carry the burden, draw the load, supply the revenue." The protective tariff "is largely paid in the form of diminished profits to the foreign producer." It is a "reasonable taxation and restraint upon those without."

Mc Kinley's view in regard to prices seems to be that price is determined by the agencies that produce the bulk of the commodity in question. (See PRICE.)

"Eleven pounds of every twelve [of sugar] come from abroad. Who fixes the price of sugar to the American consumer? Is it the Louisiana sugar grower, who produces but 1 pound out of every 12 we consume, or is it the foreign producer who furnishes 11 pounds out of 12 we consume? Why, there is not a schoolboy in this audience that does not know that the producer of the eleven-twelfths fixes the price-that the price of the one-twelfth is fixed by the price of the eleven-twelfths." 7

Mc Kinley apparently believed in the mercantile theory of the balance of trade (see), as evidenced by the following extracts from his speeches:

"I need not say to you that it is a pretty good thing at the end of a year to have a balance of trade in our favor, whether we are an individual or a government. It is a good thing to sell more than we buy." &

"Do you know how much we exported last year? Eight hundred and fifty-nine million dollars worth of American products and the gold came back for it. How much did we buy abroad? Nearly a hundred million less than we sold. When we came to settle we had nearly a hundred million of gold kept on this side. Is there anything wrong about that?"1

One of the strongest arguments of McKinley for the protective tariff is that it furnishes more labor. He said of the imports of a single year: "Two million eight hundred and seventy-four thousand is the aggregate number of days' work that were taken away from American workingmen, every day's work of which they could have performed and were waiting ready to perform.'

* * every pound, every bushel, every ton, every yard of foreign product that comes into this country to compete with ours deprives American labor of what justly belongs to it." "

Another fundamental argument is that the protective tariff upholds American wages on a high basis.

"We can not compete with foreign nations without the restraint of a tariff unless we have equal conditions and equal labor cost. To do this we must introduce European conditions and European methods in the United States." 3

The development and protection of the home market, and especially of agricultural products, is stressed.1 That the country has prospered under protection is a strong argument in its favor employed frequently by McKinley.

Finally, the protective tariff "is a national system, broad and universal in its application; if otherwise, it should be abandoned. It can not be invoked for one section or one interest to the exclusion of others." "

That another aspect of the case may have presented itself to McKinley seems possible from the trend of later utterances, notably his last speech (the Buffalo address, September 5, 1901), indicating a somewhat modified view of commercial policies. The following excerpts from that speech are cited as illustrating this point:

"Without competition we would be clinging to the clumsy and antiquated processes of farming and manufacture and the methods of business of long ago.

* *

* 6

"The world's products are exchanged as never before and with increasing transportation facilities come increasing knowledge and larger trade."? "Isolation is no longer possible or desirable." 8 "No nation can longer be indifferent to any other." 9

"Our capacity to produce has developed so enormously and our products have so multiplied that the problem of more markets requires our urgent and immediate attention. Only a broad and enlightened policy will keep what we have." 10

"By sensible trade arrangements, which will not interrupt our home production, we shall extend the outlets for our increasing surplus. A system which provides a mutual exchange of commodities is manifestly essential to the continued and healthful growth of our export trade. We must not repose in fancied security that we can forever sell everything and buy little or nothing. If such a thing were possible it would not be best for us or for those with whom we deal. We should take from our customers such of their products as we can use without harm to our industries and labor.

* * we should sell everywhere we can and buy wherever the buying will enlarge our sales and productions.

"The period of exclusiveness is past.

"If perchance some of our tariffs are no longer needed for revenue or to encourage and protect our industries at home, why should they not be employed to extend and promote our markets abroad?" u

The last sentence refers to bargaining tariffs (see), which were advocated by McKinley. (See also RECIPROCITY.)

MACLAY, WILLIAM (1737-1804); 1789-1791, United States Senator. Almost the only information obtainable as to what took place from day to day, behind the closed doors of the Senate on the debates of the first tariff, is contained in the "Journal" of Mr. Maclay.

MADISON, JAMES (1751-1836); 1776, member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention; 1780-1783, 1786-1788, member of the Continental Congress; 1784-1788, member of the Virginia Assembly; 1787, member of the Federal Constitutional Convention, also wrote 29 papers of the FEDERALIST; 1789-1797, Member of Congress; 1801-1809, Secretary of State; 1809-1817, President of the United States.

A number of protective tariff acts were passed during his administration. (See TARIFF HISTORY, UNITED STATES.)

Madison's views on the tariff are fairly well summarized in the following extracts from his writings: "However true it may be in general that the industrious pursuits of individuals ought to be regulated by their own sagacity and interest, there are practical exceptions to the theory, which sufficiently speak for themselves. The theory itself, indeed, requires a similarity of circumstances, and an equal freedon of interchange among commercial nations, which have never existed. All are agreed also that there are certain articles so indispensable that no provident nation would depend for a supply of them on any other nation. But besides these, there may be many valuable branches of manufactures which, if once established, would support themselves, and even add to the list of exported commodities; but which without public patronage would either not be undertaken or come to a premature downfall. The difficulty of introducing manufactures,

1 Address delivered before students of Rochester Business Uni1891, p. 24.

Great Debates on the Tariff, p. 50.

a Ibid., p. 51.

Ibid., p. 48.

Speech in House of Representatives, 1888, on Mills bill, quoted by Porter, op. cit., p. 274.

Last Speech of William McKinley, 58th Cong., 2d sess.,

S. Doc. No. 268, p. 4.

1 Ibid., p. 5.

• Ibid., p. 5.

• Ibid., p. 7.

10 Ibid., p. 8.

outfit, and, above all, in a market preoccupied by powerful rivals, must readily be conceived. They appear accordingly to have required, for their introduction into the countries where they are

11 Last Speech of William McKinley, 58th Cong., 2d sess., S. Doc. No. 268, p. 9.

Other references: Olcott, Chas. S., Life of William McKinley, Boston, 1916; McKinley, William, The Tariff, A Review of Tarif Legislation of the United States from 1812 to 1896, New York, 1904.