horizontal and vertical types (see) of organization are found. Specialization is increasing, although a number of tanneries, especially in the Middle West, manufacture both light and heavy leathers. It is quite usual, however, for a tanner to confine his output to those leathers which are made of a single class of materials.

The change from pit to drum or paddle tanning, as well as the adoption of machinery for many processes formerly performed by hand labor, has reduced the time required for turning the raw material into the finished product, thereby permitting a more frequent turnover of capital. Improvement of the splitting machine has made it possible to split hides into very thin layers, and these may be embossed to imitate the skins of any animal. Then, too, finishing processes which render leather more supple and pliable have increased its utility.

Localization was formerly conditioned upon the availability of tanning bark, but, of recent years, since the utilization of chrome salts and the substitution of vegetable extracts for bark, proximity of markets, land values, and suitable labor have been among the determining factors. Pennsylvania, which received its start in the tanning industry on account of its bark supplies, continues to hold first rank among the States in the value of leather produced, turning out almost half of the sole leather made in the United States in 1919, as well as a considerable amount of goat and kid upper. Philadelphia, with Camden and Wilmington, are said to consume two-thirds to three-fourths of the world's goatskins.

rough leather producer and exporter, and English harness and equipment leathers have an excellen reputation.

France is making more glazed kid, and Spain increased its leather production following the war. Japan's output of cow and horse leather for belting and sole is greater. Switzerland, which before the war exported the greater part of the hides produced, is now in a position to utilize the whole native production.

South American countries, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada have made great strides and most of these are now self-supporting in the heavy leathers. British India has a larger output of rough tanned cowhides, kips and buffalo hides, and has made a start in the manufacture of glacé kid.

Imports of leather and tanned skins, as recorded in the Statistical Abstract of the United States, were valued at $15,008,801 in 1914, at $21,217,077 in 1919, and at $8,599,517 in 1921. Glove leather, goatskins tanned for morocco, dressed upper leather, and sole leather were the largest items of import in 1914. Dressed upper leather and sole leather were of chief value in 1921. Imports of all leather and duties thereon have been as follows:

1918.

1919.

1920..

1921.

1922.

World production.-The chief foreign leathermanufacturing countries are Germany, England, France, Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, and Russia. Other countries also make considerable quantities. The world's import trade in hides and skins averaged 1,959,521,000 pounds 1923.. from 1909 to 1913, but has been very materially reduced recently. Competition for hides and skins is becoming keen as the world's population increases. Livestock, with the exception of cattle, according to the International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics, decreased from 1911 to 1921, but some increase in horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs took place between 1919 and 1922.

The production of German tanneries in 1910 was valued at $156,249,000, or at about half the value of that produced in the United States at that time. This industry is by no means as flourishing as before the war. Through the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, Posen, Danzig, Upper Silesia, and territories bordering on the Danish and Belgian States, the German market has been reduced by one-fifth. The production of German tanneries (according to a report from the Berliner Tageblatt, of October 18, published in Commerce Reports, December 4, 1922) was 150,000 tons in 1913 and 90,000 tons in 1921. The exports were 25,130 metric tons in 1913 and 14,615 in 1923, upper and sole leather constituting the larger proportion.

The output of leather in the United Kingdom, according to the census of 1907, was valued at $85,000,000. The tanning capacity expanded during the war, principally in vegetable-tanned sole and equipment leathers. Norman Hertz, of the Department of Commerce, in an address before the Tanners' Council May 6, 1921, estimated that the British capacity increased between 25 and 30 per cent during the war. Small factories are disappearing, especially in the heavy leather branch of the tanning industry. England is the chief

Exports of leather were valued at $44,975,996 in 1914. Sole and upper leather were of first importance from the value stand point. Exports of goat and kid upper in 1921 ranked first: patent leather, cattle sides and calf and kid upper following. England was the chief customer for each of these classes. France took a large quantity of patent and Canada of goat and kid upper. The value of exports of leather from the United States in 1919 was $218,783,300: in 1922, $45,471,108: and in 1923, $42.833,952.

Aquatic Leathers. Several varieties of aquatic skins, such as seal, alligator, walrus, porpoise, and whale, make attractive and durable leathers. Fishskins are not tanned on a commercial scale, although the number of shark skins used is increasing. (See FISHSKINS.)

Shark leather is fine-grained, of great tensile strength, and not easily abraded. It is now being employed for shoe trimmings, shoe uppers, bags, cases, and fancy articles. Imitation shark-skin leathers are made by embossing a grain similar to the natural markings of the shark skin upon other kinds of hides and skins.

The chief difficulty which the tanner encounters is the removing of the shagreen. It may be removed either before skinning, from the cured skins, or at the close of the tanning process. For polishing, the skins are frequently untanned; the alum tannage is sometimes employed for leather for ornamental purposes.

Sealskin possesses a tough, regular grain, and the leather therefrom is strong and resistant to abrasion. Sealskin is said to have great strength in proportion to its weight. In tanning, oak and gambier, or any of several other methods may be used; when a good bold grain is desired in finishing, gambier, alum, and sumac are employed.

The splits are sometimes prepared in imitation of deerskin for the manufacture of sporting and athletic shoes; dressed with oil, they are made into imitation chamois. The thin splits, when rolled and appropriately seasoned, are suitable for shoe and other kinds of linings. The large and coarsegrained skins are employed for boot uppers. Mucklucks (water boots) may have uppers of sealskin, prepared either with or without the hair. Alligator leathers are prized for their peculiar markings. The varying sizes of the bosses render these leathers especially attractive for fancy artieles, bags, cases, purses, etc. Alligator leather is also finding a place in the manufacture of sport and combination footwear. This leather became popular about 1855. At the peak, the United States tanned about 300,000 skins annually. Production statistics for 1923 give the number of skins tanned for fancy and bookbinders' leather as 47,716.

calfskin or grain splits of cowhide. "Bag, strap, and case" is not a rigid classification. Leather suitable for making shoe uppers, bridles, and collars is also used for traveling bags and suit cases. Some sheep leather may be used either for bags or bookbinding, while strap leather may also be used for light soles, arch supporters, etc.

Production of case, bag, and strap leather in 1914 was 1,004,581 sides, valued at $5,383,255. In 1919 the number of sides tanned for this purpose was 1,225,577, and the value of the product $11,880,766. Of this quantity Pennsylvania produced 415,413 sides, valued at $4,377,532. In 1921 the total number of sides used was 820,855; in 1923 it increased to 1,199,765 sides.

Imports of case, bag, and strap leather have come largely from England and Germany. They were valued at $29,638 in 1915, $56,314 in 1916, and $43,017 in 1917. Later statistics follow:

1918.

1919.
1920.
1921..
1922*

1923

The thickness and toughness of walrus hides make them suitable for buffing wheels for the polishing of metal, ivory, wood, etc. The hides when 1922+1 split are utilized for bags, cases, purses, and belts. In Europe, at one time, walrus was used for the rigging of vessels, and for harness and sole leather. A large part of the so-called walrus leather is sealskin with an imitation grain.

Porpoise leather resembles high-grade side and calf leather. It has great strength and has been considerably used for laces for machine belts and shoes. The chrome and vegetable processes of tanning are the ones most frequently employed. By giving splits of porpoise an oil tannage, very strong lace leather may be produced.

The total production of aquatic leathers is not recorded. Previous to 1900 the number of sealskins tanned in the United States was exceedingly small. In 1905 the number was 75,000. During the war, production was low. The returns of 1921 show that 147,635 sealskins were used for fancy and bookbinders' leather: 203,510 in 1922, and 228,320 in 1923.

In the whaling industry, Great Britain held the most prominent position during the eighteenth century, and the United States during the nineteenth. Whaling stations have been established in several countries: Alaska, British Columbia, Newfoundland, Bermuda, Russia, Africa, Japan, Australia, and South America. Most of the skins, however, are wasted.

The production of aquatic leathers is largely centered at Newark, N. J.. and is usually carried on in conjunction with fancy leathers of other kinds.

Import and export statistics are not available. Sealskin, walrus, and porpoise leathers are sometimes imported from Great Britain.

Bag, Strap, and Case Leather may be either chrome or vegetable tanned; most strap leather is vegetable tanned. While many different kinds of hides and skins may be employed, cowhide tanned with oak bark is principally used for these leathers. "Splits" are used for all three kinds, but a much heavier split is used for strap leather, which usually is made out of the full thickness of the hide. The best quality of case and bag leather is bark-tanned

1 Under act of 1922, football leather is included, the whole dutiable at 20 per cent.

Exports.-None recorded prior to 1922, when they were 121,672 pounds of case, bag, and strap leather, valued at $156,759. In 1923, exports were 536,355 pounds, valued at $174,424. Survey N-16.

Basil and Roan Leather. Unsplit sheepskins are known as "basils” or “roans," according to the method of tannage. Basils are usually bark or quebracho-tanned and are employed for parts of saddles, baseballs, blacksmiths' aprons, or may be embossed for wallets, bags, etc. Roans are generally tanned with sumac, which gives a light-colored leather, especially suitable for slippers, and, when finished in the Spanish grain, for furniture upholstery.

Production figures are not separately stated. Kelly's Directory of the Leather Trades, 1920, mentions about 60 concerns in England engaged in the production of basil leather and 25 in the production of roan leather. A considerable quantity of these leathers is also produced in France. Imports and exports of basil and roan leather are not separately recorded. Survey N-17.

Belting Leather is generally produced from greensalted hides free from surface defects, scratches, brands, etc., as it is essential that the finished product possess uniformity. Most of the leather belting is vegetable-tanned, oak tannage giving a product of great tensile strength at moderate cost. Chrome tannage is employed to some extent, especially when a steam-proof product is desired. Chrome belting leather is effective in temperatures where leathers tanned by the vegetable processes fail. Following the tanning process, belting leather is thoroughly filled with grease: cod oil and tallow are frequently used. This stuffing was formerly generally applied with a

Production. The tanneries in 1919 purchased 853,809 deer and elk skins, valued at $1,131,147. The glove leather tanners dressed 324.273 skins, with a value of $1,027,511. The production figures of 1921 show that 555,355 deer and elk skins went into upper leather and 369,646 into glove leather; corresponding figures for 1923 are 402,576 skins for upper leather and 540,449 for glove leather.

Import and export statistics are not available.

Buffing and Polishing Leathers are employed for various cleaning and polishing purposes; considerable quantities of chamois skins are used in cleaning and polishing glassware, jewelry, and metals; the skins of the shark, porpoise, walrus, ray, and dog fish are employed in smoothing wood and steel and in polishing ebony.

The hides of the elephant, hippopotamus, and walrus are prepared and cut for buffing wheels. These are sometimes used in factories manufacturing automobile tires. It is now customary to use wire buffing wheels to remove imperfections from the tires and for similar purposes. Emery paper, steel wool, and substitutes of fabric have greatly reduced the demand for leathers for polishing purposes.

Production figures are not available. This is not 87,970 a specialized industry but is carried on in conjunction with the manufacture of other leathers by half a dozen firms.

442

used in the upper, fancy, and glove leather tanneries. Statistics for 1923 show that 4,174,565 cabretta skins entered into the fabrication of shoe upper, fancy and glove leather, and 1,282,706 kangaroo and wallaby skins into upper leather.

Statistics of imports and exports are not available. Calfskin Leather. Calfskins are of finer grain than cowhides, and are especially valued where a good appearance is desired. The finest-grained skins are from very young animals. In 1923, about 47 per cent of the calfskin supply was imported. Calfskins may be tanned by the chrome or the vegetable process and any one of a variety of finishes employed. The shoe industry consumes the greater part of the quantity produced, the remainder being tanned and finished as patent, glove, fancy, and

bookbinders' leathers.

Chamois Skin. The goat antelope, known as the In 1919, the number of calf and kip skins conchamois, is nearly extinct. The trade name sumed by the domestic tanning industry was "chamois skin" usually applies to an oil-tanned 12,894,274, valued at $74,334,355. The 1914 census gave 16,067,793 skins, valued at $33,117,713. Sta- sheepskin. Only the stronger sheepskins are tistics of production for 1921 showed that 12,667,607 capable of conversion into chamois leather. The calfskins went into upper leather, 34,407 calf and skin is split into two layers, and the flesh side kip skins into patent leather other than upholstery, treated vigorously with oil. The grain split is 4,862 (exclusive of the foreign tanned) into glove called a "skiver" and is vegetable or chrome leather, and 119,036 calf and kip skins were used by tanned and marketed for bookbindings, pocketthe manufacturers of fancy and bookbinders' books, hat sweatbands, and other light leather As domestic sheepskins are usually not leather. In 1923 the number of skins for shoe two-thirds suitable for making chamois, sheepskins for such upper was 16,621,568, of which about 302,098 purposes are generally imported. When domestic went into colored leathers. In addition 1, ens. Plums are used they must be tanned in "the full kip skins were used, chiefly for colored leat

1

uses.

Calf and kip skins for other purposes numberedu! pelt," as it is impossible to split them because the

466,439.

Imports of calf and kip upper leather in 1922 were valued at $1,796,653. (See UPPER LEATHER.) Imports of other kinds of calfskin leather are not recorded.

Exports in 1922 consisted of 22,050,591 square feet of upper leather, valued at $7,402,033, and 3,186,946 square feet of patent upper, valued at $1,060,310.

Cattle-hide Leathers. Cattle hides are the raw material for the manufacture of heavy leather— belting, sole, and harness. Buffalo hides, sometimes tanned for sole leather, are inferior in quality. The hides are not usually split for the leathers mentioned, but they may be buffed or leveled for uniformity of surface and thickness. Light hides are generally chosen for collar, skirting, and light strap leathers. Both the chrome and vegetable tannages are employed; the chrome process is, however, usually applied to the light leathers.

For many purposes cowhides are split into two or more thicknesses, the grains being finished for upper, patent, bag, case, fancy, bookbinding, and the better grades of upholstery leather. The defective grains and the splits are given a napped or suèded finish or are enameled and thus made suitable for the same purposes. The buffings and levelings from the grain sides are sometimes marketed to the manufacturers of bookbinding and fancy articles.

The production of leathers from cattle hides is of growing importance. The number of hides tanned in 1919 was 22,184,517, or about 21 per cent more than were tanned in 1914.

Imports of sole leather for 1922 were 4,568,146 pounds, valued at $1,546,896, and of rough tanned leather $2,446,178 (including goat and kid skins). Imports of cattle-hide upper, recorded for the first time after the passage of the act of 1922, were valued at $6,545.

rain is porous; this also precludes their use for the -leather purposes mentioned. Chamois skin lights extensively for washing and polishing. is usee 1-hyde-tanned sheep fleshers are bought Formaldered steel-colored chamois. These skins and sold as new process of tanning, and will are made by very hot water and remain soft Le until completely worn out. bear washing in without shrinkage rb cold water as do the oilThey will not absor tanned chamois. areas 1,948,533 skins, valued Production in 1914 et 15 companies only inci mizen companies manufac ture it exclusively; 12 or at $925,492. A half-do $2,160,873, not all of whic dentally. Fleshers in in, latter was proba though the production of thepas 264,935 dozen. 1923 production of bly greater than in 1914. In chamois skins was reported agla 1913; $107,424 (See SKIVERS AND FLESHERS.) aneo of imports to

919 were valued at sich were chamois, al

Import values were $149,057 inde France is the production in 1914 was 12 per cent.le crust chamin 1914; $64,267 in 1915. The ratiin and sends to principal competing country. Eng or which are the United States large quantities of amois skin ois," tanned but unfinished, figures fon since 1917 are as follows: not given separately. Imports of cher

1918..

Square Value.

ty. Rate.

DI

007

Year.

feet.

Besides

Collar, Skirting, and Latigo Leather. leather known as "harness and saddle," there are other leathers employed by the harness maker. Skirting leather, collar leather, and latigo are made from light cowhides. The first goes into the straps and lower parts of saddles; latigo is tanned for strength and pliability and is generally used for hame straps and halters.

Production of skirting in 1914 was 311,646 sides, valued at $2,082,963. In 1919 skirting and collar together were valued at $5,998,656, and the quantity tanned was 581,410 sides. The quantity tanned in 1921 was 410,474 sides, and in 1923, 927,744 sides.

The production of latigo in 1919 was valued at $219,757, and the number of sides was 20,631. In 1921, 24,906 sides were tanned, and in 1923, 31, 787 sides.

Imports and exports.-None recorded.
Survey N-17.

Enameled Upholstery Leather is made principally from cattle-hide "grains" or "splits." It differs from the patent leather for shoe uppers, the enamel usually being on the flesh side, while the patent leather is finished on the grain side. Smoothsurfaced varnished leathers are known as "patent,' while the broken grained is designated as enameled."

Production statistics are not obtainable.

Imports. In 1914 the value of the imports of enameled upholstery leather was $17,123. Germany was the chief source of the imports. Later statistics follow:

Value. Duty. Rate.

9,418 3,695 28,831 14,774

2,955

85 739

Exports of enameled upholstery leather are not separately stated..

Exports were valued at $172,635 in 1922 and
$167,081 in 1923.
Survey N-17.
Football Leather.

Cowhides are used for the better grades of footballs and other sporting goods, and sheepskin for the cheaper grades of merchandise. Pigskins, horsehides, and calfskins are also sometimes employed. Light packer hides, when used for these purposes, may be tanned with oak bark or bark extract and finished with oil, tallow, and stearin. A compact grain, resistance to abrasion, and a waterproof product are among the qualities sought.

No one tanner specializes entirely in the production of football leather; it is not a large industry but is carried on in conjunction with the production of other leathers and sporting goods.

Import statistics are included with those of case, bag, and strap.

Glove Leather. The principal kinds of leather used in making dress gloves are sheep and lamb, goat and kid, including Capeskin, and Mocha. The greater number of domestic dress gloves were formerly made of imported materials, sheep and lamb skins being the most important. Of recent 10 years domestic sheep and lamb skins have been more largely used. Horsehide and cowhide "splits' (the flesh side of the hide split into two layers) 20 are the chief materials used in making work gloves. Deer, elk, and pig skins are also used. The term "Capeskin" at first designated the skin of a goat found in South Africa. The skins were fairly large, heavy and tight-grained; that is, having small pores. This designation now applies to other kinds of high-quality glove leather as well as to the genuine. Mocha skins are the pelts of a variety of haired sheep found in Arabia and Africa. Deerskin, formerly plentiful in the United States, now comes largely from South America. Nearly all the goat and kid skins used in making glove leather come from Europe, the best from France, with Italy, Germany, Austria, and Belgium following. Most of the lambskins used for glove leather come from Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and the Balkan States-the best, known as Tuscany lambskin, from northern Italy. The skins of the dog, fox, bear, colt, kangaroo, and other animals are also used, but are not, with the exception of some grades of colt skin, used for the finer grades of gloves.

Survey N-16. (See UPHOLSTERY.) Fancy Leather is used for pocketbooks, cardcases, music rolls, belts, bag linings, hat sweatbands, and novelties. It is made principally of sheepskin, although considerable calf and goat skin and light splits or buffings of cowhide are used. Some genuine seal, walrus, and alligator skins are used, but much sheepskin and cowhide split leather is finished and embossed to resemble the former kinds. Russia calf, one of the high grades of fancy leather, is tanned by a special process with quebracho, f hemlock, or some other vegetable tanning material: feit was originally tanned in Russia with birch bark, cb which gave it a peculiar odor, now imitated by praying birch oil on the grain. Other fancy eathers are morocco, pigskin, and alum-tanned (or tawed") sheepskin.

DProduction of fancy leather in 1914 was $8,775,968, re than half being sheep and lamb skins. In 23 production amounted to 3,918,650 skins, of $4, ich 2,987,199 were sheep and lamb,

mports of "fancy leather, including morocco, 11, and fancy calf for fancy leather goods," were 11,ed at $199,217 in 1914. Later statistics fol

6,

38,78

Production. The total value of glove leather in 1919 was $21,022,964, as compared with $4,284,655 in 1914. A most important feature in the gloveleather industry was the development of the chrome process of tanning. Leather imported for gloves has been of the fine grades calling for considerable hand labor. The chrome tannage is dis