*CHARLES MORRIS, Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- ALVAN S. SOUTHWORTH, late Secretary of the American delphia. Academies of Science in and numerous articles on American Indians and European biography. Geographical Society, New York. Africa, Arctic Exploration, Asia. *A. P. SPRAGUE, Esq., New York. Alabama Claims, Annexation, and other articles on international law. Prof. GEORGE S. MORRIS, Johns Hopkins University, EDWARD STANWOOD, Boston, Editor of The Daily AdverBaltimore. tiser. and other astronomical articles. LINDSAY SWIFT, Boston. Carlyle, Thomas. Rev. WM. J. R. TAYLOR, D. D., Newark, N. J. Bible Societies in America. J. J. THOMAS, Union Springs, N. Y. Agricultural Implements. T. SERGEANT PERRY, Boston, author of English Litera-*Prof. ROBERT ELLIS THOMPSON, Ph. D., University of ture of the Eighteenth Century. American Literature. Pennsylvania. Afghanistan, Albania, America, Andrea, Johann Valentin, Arnold, Gottfried, Atheism, Balance of Trade, Bimetallism, and other articles in biography, history, political econ omy, etc. Prof. WM. S. TYLER, D. D., Amherst College, Massachu setts. Amherst College. *SAMUEL WAGNER, Esq., Philadelphia. Abandonment, Administrator, and other legal articles. Agent, Arbitration, Major W. T. WALTHALL, Biloxi, Miss. Alabama. HENRY GALBRAITH WARD, Esq., Philadelphia. Average, General, and other articles on maritime law. H. L. WAYLAND, D. D., Editor of National Baptist, Philadelphia. Baptists in the United States. F. B. SANBORN, Concord, Mass., Secretary of the Amer- WILLIAM B. WEEDEN, Providence, R. I., author of The CONTRIBUTORS TO THE SECOND VOLUME. Among those who, in addition to the foregoing, have furnished articles for the Second Volume, are the following: HENRY E. ALVORD, Houghton Farm, New York. EDWARD ATKINSON, Esq., Boston. JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT, Providence, R. I. J. S. BILLINGS, M. D., Washington, D. C. Rev. J. R. BROWN, D. D., Nashville, Tenn. CHARLES CHAUNCEY, Esq., Philadelphia. WILLIAM HENRY GOODYEAR, New York. GEORGE BUTLER GRIFFIN, C. E., Los Angeles, California. Prof. ANGELO HEILPRIN, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Hon. JOHN A. KASSON, M. C., Iowa. Rev. R. HEBER NEWTON, New York. Rev. HENRY M. DEXTER, D. D., Editor of The Congrega- Rear-Admiral GEORGE H. PREBLE, U. S. N. tionalist, Boston. Prof. A. E. DOLBEAR, Tufts College, Mass. Miss AMELIA B. EDWARDS, Bristol, England. Prof. JOHN J. ELMENDORF, Racine College, Wisconsin. Rev. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, D. D., Shrewsbury, N. J. Dr. E. M. GALLAUDET, Washington, D. C. COLEMAN SELLERS, JR., Philadelphia. P. W. SHEAFER, C. E., Pottsville, Pa. O. H. TITTMANN, U. S. Coast Survey. Rev. CHARLES F. THWING, Cambridge, Mass. JAMES TYSON, M. D., University of Pennsylvania. ENCYCLOPÆDIA AMERICANA. AAL AASEN. AAL, JACOB (1773-1844), a distinguished Norwegian writer, born in Porsgrund, July 27, 1773. He studied in Copenhagen, first theology and afterwards natural science. In 1797 he went to Germany and studied science at the universities of Kiel, Leipsic, and Göttingen, and spent the winter 1798-99 in Freiberg, where he heard Werner. He returned to Norway in the summer of 1799, and purchased the large Noes ironworks. In 1814 he became one of the framers of the present constitution of Norway, and subsequently served several terms in the Storthing. With his vast means he aided literature and science, and many important works were published at his expense. His own literary works were partly on politics and political economy as magazine articles, of which he collected the most important ones and published them in three volumes entitled Present and Past (Nutid og Fortid), 1832-36, partly historical, relating both to antiquity and to his own eventful lifetime. His translation of Snorre Sturleson's Hemskringla in four folio volumes, published 1838-39, is a standard work. His Erendringer (Reminiscences), as a contribution to the history of Norway from 1800 to 1815, is one of the most important historical works written on the nineteenth-century history of Norway. It is a work full of facts in regard to the complications between Norway, Sweden, and Denmark: on account of the author's friendly relations with the eminent men of the three countries it is at once thoroughly patriotic and free from ill-will towards Denmark and Sweden. He died Aug. 4, 1844. (R. B. A.) AARESTRUP, CARL LUDWIG EMIL (1800-1856), Danish lyric poet, born Dec. 4, 1800, in Copenhagen, spent the greater part of his life as a practising physician in Lolland. His poems are found in two volumes, the first published in 1838, and the second after his death, in 1863. In style he is compared with Heine and Moore. He died in 1856. AARS, JAKOB JONATHAN, a Norwegian linguist, born in Christiania, July 12, 1837, in which city he established a gymnasium in 1863. In 1862 he published a grammar of the Old Norse language; in 1864 a translation, with commentaries, of several poems of the elder Edda (Udvalg norske Oldkvad), and since that he has written many important articles on language and mythology. AASEN, IVAR ANDREAS, a Norwegian botanist, philologist, and poet, was born of peasant parents, Aug. 5, 1813, and received his education at the house of a parish clergyman. He obtained a situation as a private teacher, and devoted his attention to botany. His attention was drawn to philological questions by the practice of devising Latin names for Norwegian plants unknown to the Romans. He tried to substitute native names, but found that these differed with the dialects of the different provinces. This led him to examine the relations of those dialects, and he sent to the Throndhjem Scientific Society a dissertation on the dialect spoken in Sandmöre, his native province. The society undertook to support him in making a collection for a dictionary of the Folkesprog ("speech of the people") of Norway, and he spent several years in travel with this view. In 1847 he settled in Christiania and began to write up his collections, and published a grammar in 1848 and a dictionary in 1850. He showed the unity in variety of those dialects, and their relation to the old written speech of the Norse and Icelandic sagas, and he reduced the variety of dialectic forms to normal forms. It was P. A. Munch, the philologist, who first saw in these labors the accomplishment of a proposal which he himself had made in 1832 and 1845. He had suggested the formation of a national language by a comparison of the Norse dialects which should take the place long held by the Danish in literary and educational use. Aasen fell in with this idea, and in 1853 published "specimens" of those dialects, with translations into the new normal language, and followed this up with original works, especially poems, in the same tongue. In this he found many followers, the most notable being Aasmund Vinje and Kristofer Janson, poets of much ability and popularity. Several periodicals were published in the new speech. It was resisted by the conservatism of the official classes, and by the more moderate reformers, who desired merely to modify the current Norse-Danish speech of the educated classes. The controversy still continues, and Aasen still labors for the perfection and extension of his national Norse speech. But he has not won the philologists generally to his support; even Munch in 1853 gave up the attempt as hopeless, and none of the greatest names in the very vigorous literature of Norway have declared for it. For a time Björnsterne Björnson was drawn towards it by his strong national feeling, but in 1879 he published a letter giving in his adherence to the moderate reformers. Hendrik Ibsen and Jonas Lie have not been influenced by Aasen. Aasen's poems are generally idyllic pictures of peasant-life in Norway and translations from English, German, and French. (See "Die Sprachbewegung in Norwegen," by Konrad Maurer, in Bartsch's Germa nia, 1880.) (R. E. T.) 9 See Vol. I. p. 12 Am. ed. (p. 4 - ABANDONMENT, a term in law signifying generally a surrender of property or of a right, but more particularlyIn Marine Insurance. The act by which Edin. ed.). the insured, in case of a partial loss, surrenders his rights to the insurer and claims under his policy a total loss. In such a case the loss is said to be a constructive or technical total loss. Strictly speaking, the abandonment by the insured consists of a transfer of his interest in the insured property in its damaged condition, in consideration of the insurer treating the loss as a total one under the contract of insurance. In our American contracts of marine insurance it is generally provided that there shall be no constructive total loss by abandonment except where there is an injury to the thing insured exceeding fifty per cent. upon an estimate as for a partial loss." As the policy in most cases provides that in estimating a partial loss an allowance of one-third off "new for old" shall be made to provide for the deterioration in value of the parts of the vessel, it follows that the estimated cost of repairs necessary to restore the vessel to good condition must exceed seventy-five per cent. of her value to entitle the insured to the right of claiming by abandonment for a total loss. The valuation on which this estimate is to be made is generally that named in the policy, and in cases of open policies the actual value of the vessel at the time the loss occurs, shown by proper evidence. The Federal courts have inclined to the view that the latter basis of valuation should prevail in all cases, whether the policy be valued or open, and the courts of some of the States have held to the same rule. In several of the States, however, the valuation in the policy determines the valuation on which the estimate is to be made. No special form is necessary either for making abandonment or for accepting it, but it should be made as soon as the insured is in possession of information of facts justifying it, or else he will be considered as having elected not to exercise his right to abandon. It is optional with him, but when once made and accepted is irrevocable. After abandonment by the insured and acceptance by the insurer, the insurer becomes the owner, and entitled to the possession of all that is left of the insured property, and the owner and master of the vessel are bound to act in good faith in regard to the insured property in such manner as will protect the interests of the insured, for, so far as the insured property is concerned, they become virtually the trustees of the insured. (s. W.) ABATEMENT (from the French abattre, Law French abater, signifying to "throw down"). The term is used in legal phraseology to indicate a suspension or a reduction or a comEdin. ed.). plete determination. In chancery practice abatement of a suit is the suspension of all proceedings from want of proper parties capable of proceeding or from some other cause, while the abatement of an action at law is a complete determination of the suit by interposing as a plea some matter of fact impeaching the declaration. The effect is to defeat the action without reaching any decision on the merits of the controversy, making it necessary for the plaintiff to begin a new action. The tendency in the present day is to simplify as much as possible legal proceedings, and to prevent the effect of pleas in abatement by allowing amendments in the pleadings, so that the real question in controversy may be tried without the necessity of another suit. The abatement of a nuisance is the removal or destruction of it. As applied to a legacy or a contract, it indicates, in the one case, a reduction of the amount of the legacy by reason of the insufficiency of the assets of the testator's estate to pay all his debts and the legacies as well, and in the other case a reduction made by a creditor in the amount of his claim in consideration of its prompt payment by his debtor. In mercantile law the term "abatement" is also used to indicate the deduction or allowance of import duties made under the acts of Congress by the collector of customs, on account of injury to goods. See Vol. I. p. 12 Am. ed. (p. 5 Abatement of freehold is the unlawful entry and possession of an estate by a stranger after the death of the last owner and before possession is taken by the heir or devisee. The use of the term had its origin in the ancient law of Normandy, where it was applied to the taking possession of an estate, after the death of the owner and before the heir entered, by one who had an apparent right of possession. It is distinguished from disseisin, which is the expuision by force or fraud of the person seized of the freehold; and from intrusion, which is limited to the entry by a stranger on the death of the tenant for life, in violation of the rights of the reversioner or remainder-man. (s. W.) ABBE, CLEVELAND, an American astronomer and meteorologist, was born in New York, Dec. 3, 1838. He was the eldest son of George Waldo Abbe, and graduated in New York City Free College in 1857. Hẹ studied astronomy under Brünow, Gould, Struve, and others, and in 1868 was elected director of the Cincinnati Observatory. Here he inaugurated a system of daily meteorological reports by telegraph, with predictions of the weather for one or two days in advance. This was intended for the benefit of the Chamber of Commerce of that city, and its immediate utility soon caused it to be brought to the attention of the national Government. Similar work was now undertaken for the benefit of the whole country, and officially entrusted to the chief signal-officer of the army, Gen. Albert J. Myer. Prof. Abbe was called to Washington to prepare the weather predictions, and entered on this work Jan. 1, 1871. His diligence in the prosecution of the work has largely contributed to the confidence reposed by the people in that service. He inaugurated the tri-daily predictions and their verifications, the storm-signals, the revision of altitudes, the monthly review, the simultaneous international observations, and the corresponding daily bulletin, with maps of the whole northern hemisphere. The anonymous daily publication in 1871 of the weather probabilities, which were widely circulated by the press associations, led to a general inquiry as to their author, and the name Old Probabilities" has been frequently applied to Prof. Abbe as the real author of these predictions. While in charge of the Cincinnati Observatory he directed attention to the importance and practicability of securing a greater accuracy and uniformity in the standard of time throughout America, and this matter has since attracted general attention. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences and of many astronomical, meteorological, and other scientific associations at home and abroad. He has contributed frequently on mathematical, astronomical, and physical, as well as meteorological subjects, to the Monthly Notes of the Royal Astronomical Society, As| tronomische_Nachrichten, The American Journal of Science, to Prof. Baird's Record of Science and Industry (1871-78), and to cyclopædias. ABBEY, EDWIN A., an American artist, was born at Philadelphia in 1852. He studied for a time at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts under Mr. Christian Scheussele, but he is in the main self-taught, having at an early age engaged actively in making drawings for the publishers. The majority of his book and magazine illustrations have been executed for Harper & Brothers, although he has been employed by other publishers, and has contributed to nearly all the illustrated magazines and newspapers. In 1878, Abbey went to Europe, where he remained for several years, spending his time chiefly in England. The results of his residence in England are many admirable drawings illustrative of English character, scenery, and antiquities, including a series of designs suggested by Herrick's poems. These appeared from time to time during several years in Harper's Magazine, and were afterwards made into a sumptuous volume (1882). Like all of Abbey's best works, these drawings are characterized by grace, refined humor, and poetical feeling, and the series very adequately represent the range and characteristics of the artist's talent. Another series, illustra tive of Keats's Eve of St. Agnes, contains several meritorious drawings, but the artist found the elaborate word-painting of Keats less inspiring to him than the quaint suggestiveness of Herrick, and the series as a whole fails to do its original justice. In addition to his drawings in black and white, Abbey has made a number of paintings, chiefly in water-color, and he has been a frequent contributor to the exhibitions in New York and London. Among his paintings which have been cordially praised for their superior qualities are The Stage-Office, The Evil Eye, Lady in a Garden, and A Rose in October. Abbey is a member of the New York Society of Water-Color Painters, of the New York Etching Club, and of the Tile Club. (W. J. C., JR.) ABBOT, EZRA, S. T. D., LL. D., an American biblical scholar, was born in Jackson, Me., April 28, 1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840, with high reputation as a classical scholar. After spending some years in teaching he took up his residence in Cambridge, Mass., in 1847. In 1856 he was appointed assistant librarian of Harvard College, with the exclusive charge of the cataloguing department. In 1872 he became professor of New-Testament criticism and interpretation in the Divinity School of Harvard University, which position he still holds (1883). He was elected a member of the American Oriental Society in 1852, and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1861; received the degree of LL.D. from Yale College in 1869, the same from Bowdoin in 1878, and the degree of S. T. D. from Harvard College in 1872, though a layman. He published in 1864 Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, containing the titles of more than 5300 distinct works on the subject, as an appendix to W. R. Alger's Critical History of the doctrine, and it was issued also separately in 1871. He edited, with notes, Norton's posthumous Translation of the Gospels, with Notes (1855), Norton's Statement of Reasons for not Believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians (1856), and Orme's Memoir of the Controversy on the Three Heavenly Witnesses (1866); he also revised and completed Hudson's Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament (1870; 7th ed. 1882). He co-operated with Dr. H. B. Hackett in the American edition of Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1867–70, 4 vols. 8vo), giving special attention to the bibliography of the subjects. In 1880 he published The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel-External Evidences. Dr. Abbot, after a careful consideration of all the objections which have been presented against ascribing that Gospel to St. John, decides the question in his favor. The work is distinguished not less for the fairness and solidity of the argument than for the comprehensiveness of the learning there displayed. Dr. Abbot assisted Dr. C. R. Gregory of Leipsic in the preparation of the elaborate Prolegomena (1883) to Tischendorf's last critical edition of the Greek Testament (1869–72). He was a member of the New-Testament Company of the American Bible Revision Committee, which co-operated from 1872 to 1880 with the English Committee, whose Revised Version appeared in 1881. He has contributed to the Christian Examiner, the Unitarian Review, the Bibliotheca Sacra, the North American Review, the Journal of the American Oriental Society, and the Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis. ABBOT, FRANCIS ELLINGWOOD, an American philosopher, was born in Boston, Mass., Nov. 6, 1836. He is a son of Joseph Hale Abbot (1802-1873), an eminent educator. After graduating at Harvard College in 1859, he studied theology, and was for some years a Unitarian clergyman. The tendency of his mind was to metaphysical study, and he published in the North American Review a series of articles on "The Philosophy of Space and Time," "The Conditioned and the Unconditioned," etc. His views of religion having become more negative than those of the Unitarian body, he left the ministry, and in 1870 established The Index, a journal of free thought. published at Toledo, Ohio. The paper was afterwards removed to Boston, and in 1880, Mr. Abbot withdrew from connection with it. He removed to New York, where he has been engaged in giving private instruction. He ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT, D. D., an English educator and author, was born in London in 1838. After a preliminary education in the City of London School, he entered St. John's College, Cambridge, and graduated in 1861 with high classical honors. He won several prizes, and was made a fellow of his college. was ordained deacon in 1862, and priest in the year following. After a few years' experience in teaching at Birmingham and at Clifton College, he was appointed in 1865 head-master of the City of London School. This school was established in 1834 by the corporation of London, and has a large endowment. It is intended to furnish a liberal and practical education on moderate terms, and has an attendance of more than 600 pupils. Mr. Abbott organized a thorough system of instruction in the English language, and for this purpose prepared a number of elementary text-tooks in grammar and composition. His Shakespearian Grammar has met with great favor, and is recognized as the standard work on the language of Shakespeare. English Lessons for English People, prepared by him in conjunction with Prof. J. R. Seeley, is widely used as a text-book in America as well as in England. In connection with the Education Bill of 1870, which reconstructed the whole system of public education in England, Mr. Abbott organized a deputation of head-masters, who urged upon the Government the necessity of forbidding the teaching of any religious catechism in the board schools. The object of this was to prevent fierce sectarian controversies at the election of focal school boards. The clause inserted for this purpose was adopted. Through Mr. Abbott's exertions provision was afterwards made for the scholarship which secures to the successful candidate from the schools under the London board free admission to the City of London School. The first pupil to gain this scholarship afterwards won a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was senior classic in 1881. In recognition of Mr. Abbott's services to the cause of education the archbishop of Canterbury conferred on him in 1872 the degree of D. D. He has also been chosen select preacher in the universities of Cambridge and Oxford, and the sermons preached in these courses have been published in two volumes, called respectively Cambridge Sermons (1875) and Oxford Sermons (1878). His Hulsean lectures have been published under the title Through Nature to Christ (1877). He has also prepared an annotated edition of Bacon's Essays (1876) and a sketch of Bacon and Essex (1877). To the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica he has contributed the elaborate article on the "Gospels." The same views of the compilation of these lives of Christ are presented in his Onesimus (1882), a well-written story of the age of the apostles, and a continuation of his Philochristus (1878), in which he professes to give the Gospel story as witnessed by a disciple. ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), an American author of numerous religious, biographical, educational, and juvenile works, was born at Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820, and studied theology at Andover. In 1824 he became tutor and afterwards professor of mathematics in Amherst College, and in 1826 was licensed to preach. By invitation of some friends in 1829 he opened in Boston the Mount Vernon school for young ladies, which proved highly successful. He had already commenced his career of authorship in 1828, and some lectures on religion given in connection with his school were published in 1832 under the title of The Young Christian, which at once obtained a wide popularity, and led to the preparation of three more volumes, forming a series of the same character. As these books came out they were republished in England, and one of them. The Corner-stone, was severely criticised by Rev. (afterwards |