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Pool, and sailed away up the stream, branching off and navigating an important affluent flowing from a great lake which he but imperfectly explored. There is no further account of this expedition from Mr. Stanley's pen as yet published in permanent form (1883).

In the latter part of 1882, Stanley returned to Europe. De Brazza being also in Europe, the two explorers engaged in an acrimonious war of words as to the sovereignty of the Congo region-Stanley contending that the French attempt of De Brazza to interfere and reap the benefit of the International Society's explorations and Stanley's discoveries was impudent and unwarranted. French opinion, however, sustains De Brazza, but the other European powers have taken part in the discussion, and the controversy remains unsolved.

descending this river De Brazza was compelled to run the gauntlet of hostile savages who lined the riverbanks. He passed great villages filled with enemies, who made fierce attacks in canoes crowded with men armed with guns. De Brazza was compelled to abandon further explorations of this river, and after great suffering reached the French settlement on the Gaboon. During the last months of his journey he and his companion, Dr. Bellay, had to march barefoot, their legs covered with sores, and half starved, a distance of 800 miles over land in a region hitherto unexplored. He also visited the Fans, but differs with Du Chaillu in describing them as a kindly and courageous people. They are cannibals, eating their prisoners of war. De Brazza also made a visit to Akkas, a dwarf race, first seen and described by Du Chaillu, confirming the statements of the latter traveller. On his return to Lieut. Wissmann's Journey across Africa.-Lieut. Europe, De Brazza's explorations excited such wide Wissmann and Dr. Pogge left Hamburg for Loanda in interest in France that the French Chambers voted November, 1880, but it was June 2, 1881, before they him 100,000 francs to proceed again to the Congo were able to start from Malaush for the interior. They country in order to found a French colony and establish were accompanied by José Germano as interpreter, who commercial relations with the tribes. In 1880 he de- was subsequently superseded by a negro, Biseira, a scended the tributaries of the Congo to a point above linguistic genius who picked up a colloquial knowledge the long stretch of cataracts. He then marched down of Kiswahheli in the course of five days while at the banks of the river, and met Stanley at Vivi return-Nyangwé. The road to the Muata Yanoos was closed ing to the Gaboon and Ogowé by sea. He founded against them, and they turned northward. Their his first station, Franceville, on the upper Ogowé, and assurance that the Muata Yanoo had charged them to a second one, named Brazzaville, on the banks of the fetch Kohangula's head removed all obstacles which upper Congo, at which place a tract of land was the Lundi chiefs on the frontier might otherwise have obtained from the native chief, and treaties between placed in their way, for they are accustomed to comhim and the French Republic were formally signed-a missions of this kind, and not inquisitive as to the proceeding which gave rise to a protracted and angry authority by which they are executed. On Oct. 2d controversy in Europe. De Brazza found on reaching they reached Kikassa, on the Kasai, in latitude 6° 20′ the Congo on his final visit that he was not hampered south, and the following day crossed the river into the by the Inenga, Galloa, Okanda, and Aduma peoples, Tushilange country, where they met Kingenge, a powwhose unfriendly attitude was disastrous to the Ger- erful chief who was out with 200 men hunting elephants. man expedition. De Brazza (1883) has returned to Kingenge promised to conduct them to Nyangwé on the Congo region with the avowed purpose of acquiring the Lualaba, and they started in his company. On the for the French flag the rich and populous valley of the way they learned that Mukenge, another chief of the Congo, having a powerful expedition armed with the Tushilange, was a more powerful man. In order to finest weapons and supplied with 3000 tons of mer- conciliate him, the two explorers separated, and while chandise and colonial implements. But Stanley has Lieut. Wissmann continued with Kingenge, Dr. Pogge preceded him, and the attitude and actions of the two turned off to the left and proceeded to Mukenge's self-confident explorers, armed with recognized author- town. The reception of the travellers among the ity as both are, may be attended with important con- Tushilange was exceedingly hospitable. They were sequences to the future of Central Africa. regarded as spirits of departed chiefs come back to revisit the glimpses of the moon, and all sorts of people were introduced to them as claiming kindred. They finally started for Nyangwé Dec. 1. 1881, under the guidance of Mukenge, with fifty of his wives. The Lulua, here flowing over a rocky bed of granite and not navigable, was crossed on the same day, and a denselypeopled region of prairies was entered upon. Dec. 17th the travellers arrived at Mumkamba Lake, which had been described to them as a vast sea, but turned out to be of very small extent, not being more than three miles in length. It is fed by springs, and fringed with sedge and high grass, and apparently has no outlet. Its elevation above the sea is 2230 feet. Hence they made their way towards the Lubi, a tributary of the Lubilash or Sunkeru, itself a tributary of the Congo. The Lubi forms the boundary between the Tushilange and the Basange. They had been previously struck by the great numbers of the wild Tushilange flocking around them, but Lieut. Wissmann states that the Besange were even more numerous. He found them a people friendly, laborious, and highly skilled in all kinds of industrial art, and he took away splendid specimens of their weapons, carved ivory, baskets, inlaid wares, and iron and copper utensils. Leaving these tribes and plains, the travellers entered the vast virgin forests which extend as far as the Lubilash, a stream 1000 feet wide. They found a total absence of fruit trees in this region, and therefore of game and birds. Only elephants and wild boars were met at intervals.

Stanley's Expedition for the International Association. In 1879, Mr. Stanley returned to the Congo, as the agent or viceroy of the African International Association, to establish a line of stations along the upper Congo as far as Nyangwé, to unite at this point with stations from the east coast, thus giving from Zanzibar to the Atlantic a permanent base for explorations of every portion of Central Africa. Stanley had with him a steamer furnished by the association. It drew 14 feet of water, and on its ascent of the river was furnished with a cargo consisting of materials for houses, huts, tents, provisions, and arms, and general merchandise for the establishment of the first station at a place near the Yellela Falls. Stanley took in addition a small steamer in sections, capable when put together of carrying thirty persons, intended to ply the waters of the upper Congo above the cataracts, and also three undecked steam-launches and three large flat-bottomed boats drawing 16 inches. He succeeded in establishing his first station at Vivi, 130 miles from the coast and 5 miles from Yellela Falls, where he erected an iron and wooden house. Thence he pursued his way, with 65 natives and 14 Europeans, up stream. One of the steam-launches was lost over the falls, and the others, with material for houses, had to be carried with great and harassing difficulties for a distance of 300 miles before the river again became navigable. A second station was established at Stanley Pool, above the falls, and this may be called the foundation of the capital of equatorial Africa. Two other stations in the interior were likewise located. He then launched his steamer on Stanley

On

Reaching the Lubilash in 5° 7′ south latitude, they encountered fresh difficulty in the ill-will of the king

of Koto, an old and much-revered sorcerer called and Albert Nyanza. These missionaries were all proKashichi, who rules over a medley of Luba tribes; he ficient in Arabic. Dr. Stecker, the Rev. J. T. Comber, would not provide boats for crossing the stream, and it Dr. James Stewart, M. Comber, Mr. Popelin, Mr. Carwas only by intimidating him by shots and rockets that ter, and Dr. Dutrieux are others who have visited the they induced him at last to listen favorably to their de- equatorial belt in the last decade. Mr. Hore, a mismands. After crossing the Lubilash they passed through sionary, made important observations of the Lukuga the kingdom of the Beneki tribe, of which Lieut. Wiss-outlet of Lake Tanganyika. The party to which he mann speaks very highly. They are an agricultural was attached have launched many boats on the Tanpeople, numerous and well-to-do. Their villages are ganyika, and this great inland sea is now navigated by well built and clean, the houses being surrounded with all travellers reaching its shores. The year 1879 was gardens and palm trees. Some of the villages were so marked by the travel in the equatorial regions performed extensive that four or five hours were spent in march- by M. Debaize, the Rev. C. T. Wilson, and Mr. Felkin, ing through them, and some had two or three rows of and on the upper Congo by A. McAll and Mr. Comber. houses or streets: the population numbers hundreds of Dr. Gerhard Rohlfs in 1879 made an attempt to reach thousands. Hence they passed through the vast prai- the vast unexplored region lying between the Ogowé rie-lands inhabited by the tribes Kalebue and Milebue, River and the White Nile. While contributing largely a densely-populated territory which extends as far as to geographical science, this intrepid explorer was driven the Lomané, also a tributary of the Congo, beyond back by the fanatical people of Wadaí. Dr. Holub in which they crossed Cameron's track. The travellers the Zambesi region, and Mr. Maples to the north of the suffered severely from the heavy rains; in fact, they Rovuma, also did valuable geographical work during could not have traversed these swamps had they not this year. In 1880, Mr. Comber again did good service been mounted on oxen, which are very serviceable ani- on the Congo, discovering the great cataract Arthingmals when bought at Loanda. They jump like Eng- ton Falls in the Zombo Mountains east of San Salvador, lish hunters, canter, and trot. Wissmann lost the last where the river Brija leaps over the steep escarpment before reaching the east coast-a climate in which they of an interior plateau. During this year valuable discannot dwell, though they are always serviceable in West coveries were also made by Dr. Junker. Emir Bey and and Central Africa. Nyangwé was reached on April M. Buchta obtained a wonderful series of photographs 17th. Dr. Pogge started on his return journey westward of countries lying beyond those visited by Baker and on May 5th, and left only three men with guns with his Schweinfurth. There were also several expeditions companion. The latter, however, met with ready as- of a semi-military character across the Sahara and to sistance from the sheikh Abed-ben-S'alim, an Arab, the upper Niger. who furnished him with ten guns and fifteen carriers, with whom, on June 18th, he started for Lake Tanganyika. After repeatedly crossing the routes of previous explorers, he arrived at Plymouth Rock, a station of the London Missionary Society, on July 18th, where he met the Rev. Dr. Griffiths. From this stream he crossed the lake to Ujiji. Guns were few and expensive, and thus Lieut. Wissmann was obliged to start with twenty unarmed carriers. This imprudent step nearly cost him his life. The people of Ukha, aware of his defenceless condition, lay in wait for him near the Malagarazi, and were preparing to put a stop to his further journeyings, when he bared his arm and, pointing to a scar, shouted "Mirambo!" The word acted like magic. The death of a white man with whom the dreaded chief had exchanged blood would surely be avenged, and the plunderers desisted. Mirambo, whose capital Lieut. Wissmann reached Aug. 31st, is described by him as "a capital fellow." From Unanyembe, Wissmann paid a visit to the German station of Gonda to get a pair of boots, finally reaching the coast by way of Mpwapwa. He arrived at Saadani Nov. 15, 1882, having spent twenty-two months and a half in his journey from coast to coast, which he performed with rare prudence, intelligence, and courage.

Minor Explorations.-In 1872, Mr. Vincent Erskine returned from a journey over the vast bush-covered plains along the east coast of Africa from the Limpopo to the Zambesi, an area 600 miles long and 250 miles broad. In 1874, Dr. Nachtigall was the first explorer to visit the eastern half of the Sahara in his journey to Tibesti. He explored Wadaí, crossed Lake Chad, through Darzaheh and Darfour to the Nile basin, succeeding in a route which cost Vogel and Beurmann their lives. In 1875, Mr. E. D. Young, having nearly £20,000 at his command, established a flourishing mission on Lake Nyassa. This place is called Livingstonia. In 1876 many explorers returned from various parts of the continent-Dr. Lenz from the Ogowé River; Dr. Pogge from Musumbe; Herr Eduard Mohr from the Victoria Lake via Kenia. The marquis of Antinori, with a splendidly equipped expedition, started for the equatorial lakes in 1875, viâ Shoa, which he reached in safety, but finally died without accomplishing his mission. In 1876 a large force of missionaries, under the lead of Abbé Debaize, set out for the purpose of founding missions on the great lakes Tanganyika, Victoria,

The period under consideration-the ten years from 1873-has also been marked by the publication of the journey to Central Africa of Alvan S. Southworth, formerly secretary of the American Geographical Society; by the scientific explorations of the Austrian Marno westward of the White Nile; by the death of the veteran Miani, who spent nearly the whole of his life in Central and Northern Africa; and by the important contributions of Shuvet to our knowledge of the central region. The various expeditions mentioned in this article have added immensely to our knowledge of the continent, and, taken in connection with the enterprises of the "African Association," of which the king of Belgium is the president, and also of the expeditions now in the field, the results in this period are indeed greater, more multifarious, accurate, and substantial, than all preceding geographical knowledge collected since the African continent was first made known to man. (L. L.—A. S.)

AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, an American religious body, was organized in 1816, being formed of members who withdrew from the Methodist Episcopal Church. In the early years of Methodism the white and colored members worshipped in the same congregation, the colored occupying seats assigned them. In 1786, upon the building of St. George's Church in Philadelphia, the colored people were assigned seats in the gallery. Trouble followed, and the colored members withdrew; some of them drifted into the Protestant Episcopal Church; some returned to St. George's; others formed an independent association, numbering 66 persons in 1794. Under the lead of Richard Allen, who in 1816 became their first bishop, they purchased a large blacksmith-shop, which was fitted up for a place of worship and dedicated as such by Bishop Asbury. They named their church " Bethel," obtained a charter, and remained for a time under the control of the M. E. Church. The congregation of the Bethel Church remained under the protectorate of St. George's till 1815. More sources of irritation developed themselves, and in April, 1816, a convention was called to meet in Philadelphia. There were five delegates from Philadelphia, seven from Baltimore, three from Attleborough (Bucks co., Pa.), one from Salem, N. J., and one from Wilmington, Del. The convention adopted the name of "The African Methodist Episcopal Church." The Church holds to the twenty-five articles of religion com

62

AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL ZION CHURCH-AGASSIZ.

attending disorder Prince was silenced. With others of the Lampeter Brethren he left the Church about 1859, and began to form the "Abode of Love." In this community the members were to be free from earthly passions, and, though married, to live as though they were not. That they might be separate from the world, they were required to give up their wealth to "The Beloved," as Prince was now called. Money was obtained, chiefly from some spinsters named Nottidge, who became spiritual wives to prominent brethren; land was purchased at Spaxton, and fine buildings were erected. Prince now declared that the time had come for saving the flesh, as Christ had already redeemmarried to Mr. Starky's sister, who was living in the community, he took a new bride, but, to the grief of all concerned, a child was born of this union. In consequence of the scandal some of Prince's followers withdrew; lawsuits and other troubles arose, but many AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL ZION members stayed, still accepting "The Beloved's" guidCHURCH, an American religious body, was organ-ance unreservedly. A hierarchy was formed in which ized in 1821. It holds the doctrines that are com- Thomas and Starky were called "The Anointed Ones," mon to Methodism; its polity is similar to that of while others were angels and witnesses. Some pamthe Methodist Episcopal Church, the characteristic phlets had previously been issued by those interested, difference being that its bishops are elected for four and in 1862 a volume of lectures was published setting years only, and are consecrated without the laying forth the experience of Prince as a new revelation of on of hands. In 1820 a large congregation of colored Christ, but after a proclamation of the salvation of the Methodists in the city of New York, known as the flesh was sent abroad the leaders resigned themselves Zion Church, seceded from the M. E. Church, and to a life of luxurious idleness. Even since the death with one or two other congregations formed an in- of Prince (about 1877) the community has continued. dependent organization. The dissatisfaction grew out of steps taken by the New York conference of the M. E. Church to secure more definitely, by legal action, the property used by the colored members in case of a secession. The secession proceeded largely under the influence of the Rev. James M. Stillwell, who had been pastor of the old John Street Church in New York City. Bishop Allen endeavored to induce them to unite with the African Methodist Episcopal Church, but after much consultation this proposition was declined. They did not wish, it seems, at first to be entirely independent of the M. E. Church, preferring to be constituted, with other colored congregations, into a separate annual conference. It was decided that only the General Conference of the M. E. Church could constitute annual conferences, and, disappointed in their plan, they proceeded to hold a conference of their own, June 21, 1821. Joshua Soule (afterwards bishop) and Dr. Phoebus met with them, giving advice. Several local preachers were elected elders, and were ordained by Mr. Stillwell, assisted by two elders who had also withdrawn from the M. E. Church. At their organization they reported 22 preachers and 1626 members. July, 1822, James Varick was elected their first bishop. In 1847 they claimed 75 travelling preachers, 60 church buildings, and 5000 members. After the Civil War the late slave States were opened to them, and their increase was rapid. In 1864 propositions were considered looking to union with the African Methodist Episcopal Church, but the negotiation fell through. In 1880 they were reported as having 1500 itinerant preachers, 2500 local preachers, and 190,900 members. Their chief educational institutions are Rush Academy, Fayetteville, N. C., and Zion Hill, Washington co., Pa. They have a small publishing interest in Washington City. (See METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH.) (A. G. H.)

mon to Methodism, and its discipline was modelled on that of the M. E. Church. The growth of the Church was slow, but steady, being confined in its operations to the free States and border slave States. In 1822 there were 2 conferences, 17 itinerant preachers, and 7937 members; in 1836, 4 conferences, 27 itinerant preachers, and 7594 members; in 1846, 6 conferences, 67 itinerant preachers, and 16,190 members. After the Civil War the former slave States were open to the Church, and its numbers grew rapidly, thousands coming to it from the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. In 1866 the Church reported 10 conferences, 185 pastors, and 50,000 members. In 1880 it claimed 1418 itinerant preachers, 3168 local preach-ed the soul of man. Though he had already been ers, and 214,808 members. This church has a publishing-house in Philadelphia, and an official journal, The Christian Recorder. Its chief educational establishment is Wilberforce University, Ohio. (See METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH.) (A. G. H.)

AGAPEMONE (from Gr. ayán, love, and μový, an abiding), a community chiefly residing at Spaxton. Somersetshire, England, 9 miles from Taunton. It took its origin in a praying brotherhood of mystical tendency formed by some divinity students in St. David's College, Lampeter, about 1836. Henry James Prince, leader of these Lampeter Brethren, was ordained at the age of twenty-eight, and became curate at Charlinch, Somersetshire, where the rector of the parish, Rev. Samuel Starky, adopted his views. A revival soon took place, but in consequence of some

AGARDH, CARL ADOLF (1785-1859), a celebrated Swedish botanist, political economist, and theologian, was born Jan. 23, 1785, in Båstad, in Scania, and was elected professor of botany in Lund in 1812. Agardh gave his special attention to algology, and he may truly be said to have developed this study and given it a scientific basis. He died Jan. 28. 1859. The most important of his numerous works are-Systema_Algarum (Lund, 1824); Species Algarum (3 vols., Lund and Greifswald, 1820-28); Icones Algarum Europœarum (Leipzig, 1828-35); Lärebok i Botanik (2 vols., Malmö, 1830-32; translated into German by Meyer and Von Creplin); and Forsök till en statsekonomisk Statistik öfver Sverige (parts 1-3, Karlstad, 1852–59; Ljungberg added a fourth part in 1863).

AGARDH, JAKOB GEORG, a Swedish botanist, son of C. A. Agardh, was born in Lund, Dec. 8, 1813. He became professor of botany in Lund in 1854, and professor emeritus in 1879. He is the author of several important works on botany, among which his Species, Genera, et Ordines Algarum (in 4 vols., Lund, 1848-63) is justly celebrated. Of his other works we may mention-Synopsis Generis Lupini (Lund, 1835); Recen sio Generis Pteridis (Lund, 1839); Algae Maris Mediterranei et Adriatici (Paris, 1842); In Systema Algarum Hodierna Adversaria (Lund, 1845); and Theoria Systematis Naturalis Plantarum (Lund, 1858). Agardh owns a fine collection of algæ, begun by his father.

AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER, an American geologist and zoologist, son of the distinguished Prof. Louis Agassiz, was born in Switzerland in 1835. He came to the United States with his father in 1846, graduated at Harvard College in 1855, and studied civil engineering in Lawrence Scientific School, receiving the degree of B. S. in 1857. He then studied chemistry, and was also engaged in teaching in his father's school for young ladies. In March, 1859, he went to California, and, being appointed assistant in the United States Coast Survey, collected many specimens of fish for the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology, then in charge of his father. On his return to Cambridge, Mr. Agassiz was appointed agent of the museum, and studied thoroughly zoology and geology. In 1865 he became interested in coal-mining in Pennsylvania, but afterwards turned his attention to the copper-mines of Lake Superior. Here he spent two years and a half, and, having succeeded in developing the richest coppermines in the world, became very wealthy. In 1869 he

But perhaps the greatest value of the Mexican aloes or agaves lies in their fibre. The famous picture-writing of the Aztecs is on paper made from the fibres, which seem to have been laid parallel together and beaten in the process of manufacture. The fibre known in commerce as pita is prepared from various species, though in Brazil, according to Dr. J. de Saldanha, pita there is chiefly made from Fourcroya gigantea. Some bromeliaceous plants are also believed to yield pita thread. The best-known fibre comes from Agave rigida (A. Sisalana of some authors), and is commercially Sisal hemp. It is equal to manila, and yields about $250 per acre. Dr. Peyre Porcher says that a crusher used in preparing sugar-cane is effectual for crushing the leaves of the Agave. There is a gum in the leaves which renders cleaning the fibre from the cellular matter somewhat difficult. A stream of water is kept on the pulp during crushing to clean out the gum. Prof. Gabb states that if proper machinery for cleaning the fibre could be invented, the growing of Sisal hemp would be one of the most profitable industries of America. Attempts have been made to introduce the culture to Florida. As early as 1853, Mr. W. C. Dennis had fifty acres planted at Key West, which had given encouraging results up to the commencement of the civil war.

went to Europe, where he examined the principal mu- | agreeable to Europeans that it takes some time to beseums, and on his return resumed his duties as assistant come passionately fond of it. The fermented liquor curator of the Harvard Museum. After the death of resembles brandy. The trunk is baked, and, under the his father in 1873, Mr. Agassiz was appointed curator name of mezcal, is regarded as a savory dish. A soap, of the museum, to the enlargement and endowment called amole, is made from the roots; a gallon of the of which institution he has devoted much of his time expressed juice, the water being evaporated by the sun, and wealth. Pres. Eliot of Harvard University has yields about one pound of soap, which lathers with salt stated that Mr. Agassiz has contributed in ten years water as well as with fresh. $230,000 to the museum, besides numerous gifts to other departments of the university. In 1875 he visited Peru and Chili to examine their copper-mines, and brought back a large collection of Peruvian antiquities. In subsequent years he engaged in deep-sea dredging expeditions, investigating regions previously unexplored, and making many important contributions to science. He has published numerous papers embodying original research, as well as reports of the museum under his charge. (For his publications see Catalogue of the Royal Society of London and List of Publications of Museum of Comparative Zoology.) AGAVE is a a genus of plants belonging to the order Amaryllidacea, and comprises over one hundred species, with as many more varieties which have been regarded as species, all natives of the American continent. Mexico is their great central home. Fourteen are natives of the United States, chiefly in the arid parts; one, Agave Virginica, being found as far north as the Potomac River. The oldest known species is the common centuryplant, which was introduced to Spain from Mexico, and from there to England, where one is on record as being cultivated as early as 1561. In the south of Europe it has become wild, and is a striking ornament in the natural scenery of rocky places near the sea-coasts, where it seems particularly to love to grow. The early botanists classed it with the aloes, whence "American aloe," by which it is yet familiarly known. Linnæus first named it "Agave," because that name in Greek indicates "something grand and admirable.' Agave, in mythology, was one of the fifty daughters of Nereus, fond of inhabiting rocks along the sea-coasts, thus renThe varieties with striped leaves and narrow leaves, dering the name classically appropriate. Its wame, equally with those with gray-green, so common in cul"century-plant," comes from a belief that under cultivation, are all forms of A. Americana. The most tivation it takes nearly one hundred years before it flowers. Specimens have been known to be fifty years old without blooming. In their native country they usually bloom in less than ten years. When it commences to flower the stalk grows often five inches a day, and has been known to reach a height of forty feet and perfect 4000 flowers. These exude a sweet secretion in great abundance, for the purpose, probably, of attracting insects and thus securing cross-fertilization. Some assert that the flowers open with a loud report, even going so far as to compare it to artillery; but this needs confirmation.

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It shares with the plantain, bread-fruit, and some others the reputation of being among the most useful class of plants in the world. Bauhin, a famous author of the seventeenth century, remarks of the Agave Americana, or common century-plant," that it is "the maguay tree, from which may be obtained water, oil, vinegar, honey, syrup, thread, needles, and innumerable things of value to humanity." The picture is not overdrawn. Engelmann says that in Mexico an immense quantity of saccharine juice is prepared in its leaves. When the flower-scape shows the first signs of development, the terminal bud and the innermost leaves are removed, when, in the basin thus formed, the liquid collects and is dipped out-on an average about a gallon a day for two or three months in succession; from a single plant 150 to 300 gallons in all. From this juice the fermented (pulque) and distilled (mezcal) liquors are prepared which are so generally used all over Mexico. It is remarkable that the saccharine character enters only with the flowering condition. At other periods the juice is acrid, though some writers say certain animals relish the leaves. Pulque is the Spanish name for the juice, which resembles cider in appearance, and has an odor so dis

The genus yields little for medical uses. Lindley says that the roots of A. Americana are sometimes mixed with sarsaparilla; and Dr. Peyre Porcher states that the negroes of the Charleston district believe A. Virginica is a cure for the bite of a rattlesnake, and call it rattlesnakes' master.

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handsome one is said to be Agave Shawi, first found
in Arizona by Dr. C. C. Parry in 1850, and named by Dr.
Engelmann in compliment to Henry Shaw, the founder
of the Missouri Botanic Garden.
(T..M.)

AGELEINE (Gr. ȧyehaios, gregarious), a sub-
family of birds of the family ICTERIDE or American
starlings (which see). It contains the well-known bob-
olinks or reedbirds (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), the notori-
ous parasitic cowbirds (Molothrus ater and other species
of that genus), the meadow-starlings (Sturnella magna
and others), and numerous species of marsh-black birds
of the genera Agelaus, Xanthocephalus, and others. All
are confined to America, several are abundant and fa-
miliar species of the U. S., and various others occur in
the warmer parts of America.
(E. C.)

AGENT, one who acts for and by the authority See Vol. I. of another, who is called the principal. p. 250 Am. The term is of very wide application, and ed. (p. 280 includes many classes of persons acting in

Edin. ed.).

a representative capacity, to whom distinctive names are given, such as attorneys, factors, brokers, commission merchants, and auctioneers. The law relating to principal and agent is therefore very extended in its application, as a large proportion of the mercantile business of the country is done through agents of one kind or another. The general principles of law relating to the subject are

1. The acts of an agent, duly constituted and acting within the scope of his authority, are in law the acts of the principal. The legal maxim is, “Qui facit per alium facit per se.

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2. The principal is bound by all the acts of his agent done within the scope of his authority. This authority may be given under seal, or in writing not under seal, or orally, and is general when it extends to all such acts as are requisite to carry on a particular business or em

ployment for another, or special when it extends only to a particular act. The authority may also be either given in express terms, or implied from the acts of the parties and the circumstances of the case. Thus, a man may send his servant with a written authority to buy a particular article from a shop, but if he sends him habitually to buy there without any written order or other notice to the shopkeeper, and if he pays for the articles so bought, there would be an implied authority to buy anything at that particular shop. So if a merchant places his goods in the hands of an auctioneer or other person whose regular business is to sell goods for others, thereby it may be considered that he creates an agency for the sale of those particular goods. And, in general, where any one is employed repeatedly to do a particular thing, those with whom such person deals have a right to believe that he has been duly authorized to act as an agent for that purpose.

cess of knowledge after the analogy of the conditioning physical process.

The result is, that all knowledge is held to be strictly and exclusively sensible knowledge. It consists of sensitive states or feelings mechanically determined, and is purely individual or primarily restricted to the states and feelings of the individual subject. The fundamental notion is the old one, according to which the "mind," the apparent agent of knowledge, is a tabula rasa, or like a piece of white paper, upon which, then, objects by mechanical impact produce impressions, out of which knowledge is compounded. Naturally, if this be the complete notion of mind as agent in knowledge and not, the rather, a partial one-the inference must follow that the mind knows only impressions, or, in other words, its own modifications and states, and not itself in its own essence, or the real objects themselves which are supposed to affect it. All that is 3. The authority of an agent is always presumed to known is the relative or sensibly phenomenal-not the extend to all acts usual and requisite to carry it into absolute or noumenal, or "things-in-themselves." effect, unless the contrary is clearly shown. An agency, The logical result of the foregoing views is complete therefore, to transact a particular piece of business car- philosophical scepticism. It renders the very concepries with it authority to do whatever may be necessary tion of the Absolute unaccountable. A broader and to make the transaction in its entirety, and a general completer science of knowledge accounts for it by showagency includes the power to do whatever is requisite to ing that the agnostic or sensational theory of knowcarry on the business committed to the agent's charge. ledge is partial, corresponding only to a certain, restrict4. The duties and liabilities of an agent are measured ed portion of the facts of the case. The account which by the extent of his authority, and if he acts beyond the agnostic himself gives of it is full of contradiction the scope of his authority he becomes personally liable and confusion. It suffices to add that Mr. Spencer to his principal, and also to third parties. He is also holds the absolute and "Unknowable" to be an uniliable to his principal for misconduct or negligence re-versal and "persistent Force." With this conception sulting in a loss. The extent of negligence sufficient to make him liable depends upon the character of the agency if he undertakes for a compensation to do a thing requiring the exercise of a certain skill for its ordinary performance, he is bound to use such skill; but if no particular skill is necessary, and he receives no compensation, he is not liable, provided he acts in good faith and to the best of his abilities. He is bound to take good care of the property of his principal entrusted to him, and to keep books and render true accounts of his transactions. (See PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.) (s. W.) INNOSTICISM is a name which has come into use to express the doctrine of those who hold that no knowledge of absolute reality is possible. It is employed more especially in connection with the doctrine of Mr. Herbert Spencer and his followers, who hold, in the language of Mr. Spencer, "that our own and all other existence is a mystery absolutely and for ever beyond our comprehension."

Analogous views have been maintained by some in all ages of the history of philosophy, and on grounds generically identical with those on which modern Agnosticism is founded. Agnosticism expresses the alleged final result of the science of knowledge. It consists in the affirmation of a certain limitation of human knowledge. But this affirmation can of course only result from an examination of the actual range, nature, and process of human knowledge. The agnostic holds knowledge to be a purely mechanical process. It is the obverse, or reverse face, of a system of nervous shocks, variously compounded, but having their origin wholly in causes which are either external in the organism or else have been, by heredity, transmitted to it, and, as it were, embedded in it. In either case the shock or the corresponding conscious state is mechanically determined. That knowledge, on one of its important sides, is dependent on mechanical or physical conditions, has never been doubted. The agnostic makes the whole science of knowledge to consist in the analysis of these conditions. It is admitted by him that the conditions and the result dependent on them are absolutely incommensurate, so that it is altogether impossible to see how the former can be the cause of the latter or stand in any sort of relation to it. Yet the fact is, that they do stand in relation; and, resting on this fact, the agnostic goes on to interpret the whole nature and pro

-of "Force"-he has already transcended and practically refuted his own theory of knowledge.

The position of English Agnosticism differs from that of Kant in that, among other things, it admits no such distinction as that which was made by Kant between theoretical and practical knowledge. Kant did indeed identify theoretical knowledge with sensibly-conditioned knowledge, and so concluded that the Absolute is theoretically unknowable. But, "practically," nothing was more evident, in his view, than that man is, absolutely considered, a supersensible.-i. e. a spiritual-being, free ual kingdom, of which God, the Absolute Being par exand responsible, and destined for immortal life in a spiritcellence, is the monarch. We may say that in taking this position Kant was formally inconsistent with himself, while substantially he was only placing himself in express agreement with the real presuppositions of his own theory of sensible knowledge itself, with the fundamental facts of real experience, and with the results of that fuller and more complete science of knowledge which is established in the grander forms of philosophic inquiry, both ancient and modern.

See Vol. I.

The English agnostic denies freedom, and names not God. (G. S. M.) AGOUTI, the common name for about ten species of rodents constituting the genus Dasyp. 255 Am. procta, and by some (e. g., Alston) considered. (p. 285 ed as typical of a peculiar family, DasyprocEdin. ed.). tido-Coelogenys being an associated genus. The agoutis are limited to tropical and sub-tropical America. The tail is obsolete or short, the rump covered with long hairs, and the claws are short and hoof-like. The species are closely related, and Alston has found "the coloration of the long hairs of the rump to be the most trustworthy" characteristic. The oldest known and typical species, D. aguti, inhabits Guiana, Northern Brazil, and Eastern Peru; another, D. acouchy, distinguished by a more developed and slender tail and smaller size than other species, is found in most of the same range, but not in Peru. One species, D. Mexicana, occurs in Mexico; at least two, D. punctata and D. isthmica, in Central America, and one, D. cristata, in the West Indies. The others are South American. The remarks as to the habits and edibility of the common species in the article AGOUTI in the ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA are essentially applicable to all the species.

(E. c.)

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