familiar with their use, and possibly tried to extend in all directions the areas of towns, such as now are found in Arizona and New Mexico, built entirely of adobe. It is certain that from the high, dry plateau system of the south-west portion of the United States, where it flourished at its best, the adobe construction radiated in every direction to the north and east until unfavorable conditions checked its spread. The ruins of Central America show in general that stone alone was suitable in that region. The advent of the Spaniards did not alter, and hardly improved, the system of architecture. Some of the important buildings erected were made more pretentious by the addition of a meretricious system of ornamentation, but they are not more secure or better built than those of the natives. The making of adobes is simple in the extreme. The builder selects a flat place, as near his building as possible and convenient to water. He aims to secure a good fire-clay, but will take an inferior article. The material, stirred to a thick mud with sufficient water, is sometimes worked by a brick-mill and horse-power, but is more often stirred by a hoe. The moulds may be of any size, generally three inches thick, six or more wide, and fifteen to eighteen inches long. The bricks are dried in the sun with either side up by turns, and then on the edge, and the process is complete. A hard day's rain will sometimes spoil the unfinished bricks; a longer rain will certainly do it, and sometimes even wash down a half-built wall of dried adobes. The mud from which these bricks are made is also used as mortar in laying them, and the walls are made three or four times as thick as would be necessary if burnt bricks were used. But when in place, and well plastered on the outside with a mud or lime plaster, and a dry roof over all, there is no limit to the life of an adobe house, provided the rain and snow are kept out of the walls. A flat roof, made by using logs or beams reaching from wall to wall, and then covering the cross-planking with a layer of dirt six or more inches deep, is generally associated with adobe houses. This is owing only to poverty, however, of timber or other good roofing-material, and such a roof, when water- or snow-laden, is an extra burden and danger to the house. Houses built with pitched roofs of tin or shingle, and with good eaves, well plastered on the outside and lime-washed, are durable, attractive in appearance, and very comfortable in winter or summer. Sometimes, when the adobe contains limestone in its composition, a half burning will make it a good hard brick, very suitable for fireplaces and chimneys, which otherwise are in constant need of repair. Adobe houses are generally of one story and without a cellar; they are sometimes of two, but very rarely of more than two, stories in height. Churches and cathedrals are built much higher in walls and towers, but without exception look very bulky and uneven, and in general the walls cannot sustain the weight, but crack or settle, to the destruction of their appearance, if not danger of their existence. Within the limits of rainfall and temperature to which this construction is adapted, adobe buildings, well built and with good roofs and well cared for, will probably always be used, but elsewhere they cannot be maintained. (E. H. R.) ADRIAN, the county-seat of Lenawee co., Mich., is See Vol. I. a flourishing city, 33 miles west of Lake p. 150 Am. Erie, on the main line of the Lake Shore ed. (p. 165 and Michigan Southern Railroad and of Edin. ed.). the Detroit, Wabash, and St. Louis Railroad. There are also six branch roads connected with these and other railroads passing through or terminating in the city. It is on both sides of the river Raisin, which gives good drainage and furnishes abundant water-power for manufactories. It contains the Peninsular car-works, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern car-shops, wheelbarrow - works, the Adrian canningworks, straw-goods factory, pork-packing house, five flouring-mills, two steam granite-works, three furni ture-factories, two machine-shops, three tinplate-works, large wagon-factories, and many other industrial establishments. Adrian is handsomely laid out with spacious, well-paved streets beautifully shaded with maples, so that it is called "Maple City." It contains Adrian College, under the control of the Methodist Protestant Church, and a handsome central publicschool building, with branch schools in each of the four wards of the city. In the neighborhood, on a site of forty acres, is the State Reform School for girls, which cost $300,000. Adrian has a splendid Masonic temple, an opera-house, eleven churches, five large hotels, five banks, two daily and three weekly newspapers, an efficient fire department with three steam fire-engines and other appliances. It is lighted with gas, and while the water-supply is sufficient for the present, a system of water-works, costing $150,000, has been projected. With all these improvements the city debt does not exceed $25,000. Lenawee county was formerly heavily covered with timber, and there still remains a large growth of hard wood which gives employment to numerous saw - mills. Now, however, while it is shown by the Government reports to be the most productive agricultural county in the Union, it is especially noted for its dairy products, the revenue from which is greater than that from wheat. The population of Adrian in 1880 was 7849, but is now (1883) estimated at 10,000. See Vol. I. ADULTERATION. The prevalence of adulteration in articles of every-day use in any counp. 152 Am. try is generally in direct proportion to its ed. (p. 167 civilization and the density of its population. Edin. ed.). In a new country the tastes of the community are of necessity simple, and the food-supply, though it may be coarse, is generally abundant. It is only when the population begins to be crowded that the trade of adulteration flourishes. A farming community which raises the most of the food it consumes, and grows the material from which its clothing is made, has little to fear from the arts of the adulterator. It is only when the middleman steps in between the producer and the consumer, or rather only when the producer and consumer cease to be identical, that aḍulteration begins, and we may set it down as an axiom that the more hands an article has to pass through between the producer and the consumer the more liable is it to become adulterated. The wealthier classes in a community rarely suffer from adulteration; it is the lower and middle classes, who wish to enjoy the appearance at least of having the same luxuries as the wealthier, that are the most common victims of the fraudulent art. In America the sources of food have been so abundant, and the food itself of such excellent quality and so low in price, that until recently but little fraud was practised, and that was generally of the most primitive kind, and was usually of the nature of short weight or measure, or inferior quality, rather than direct adulteration. During the War of the Rebellion, however, the whole food-supply of the country was disarranged and adulterations of all kinds flourished. Foreign trade was to a great extent cut off, while the demand for foreign goods continued. Take, for example, the article coffee: the Government became a large purchaser; the price advanced both on this account and because it had to be paid for in gold; the market became flooded with various substitutes for coffee, chief among which were roasted peas and roasted rye, articles resembling coffee in but the one particular that they furnish with hot water a decoction of a dark color and a slightly bitter taste. Until recently no systematic attempt was made to ascertain to what extent adulterated articles enter into daily use in this country. A number of spasmodic efforts have been made from time to time, either by individuals or by boards of health, to investigate the subject, but many of these have come to naught, and that of a herd. In Massachusetts and some of the other New England States an analysis of the suspected milk is necessary in order to secure conviction, for adul teration, in the courts. In New York and New Jersey the specific gravity and general appearance of the milk are considered sufficient, the officers in those States taking the ground that pure milk from a healthy cow never falls below 1029 in specific gravity, unless there is an excess of cream present, and they rely altogether upon the judgment of the officer as to the fact of such excess. with the single exception of milk no article has been | The first sample was the milk of a single cow; the last thoroughly studied. Many of these so-called investigations, indeed, have led to entirely erroneous results, either from the ignorance or the carelessness of the investigator. While there have been no investigations worthy of the name, yet periodically some one has become interested in some branch of the subject, has collected all the newspaper notices that could be found, and on this basis, without taking the trouble to inquire into the truth of the reports, has succeeded in getting laws passed which in most cases are either impracticable or else are without means provided for their execution. Nearly every State has more or less legislation upon the subject of adulteration, but in almost every case the law exists only on paper, since no attempt is made to enforce it. Many, if not all, of the larger cities in the United States have police regulations in regard to the sale of unwholesome articles of food, but, except in the case of milk, these regulations do not apply to adulterated articles. As a result of the passage of the English Adulteration-of-Food Act a new agitation of the matter took place in this country, which resulted in a prize being offered by the Sanitary Engineer of New York for the best essay upon the whole subject of adulteration of food and drugs; a committee was appointed by the journal to examine these essays and to draft a law in accordance with the suggestions contained in them. The prize was awarded to G. W. Wigner, and the committee drafted a law which has been adopted, in substantially the form reported, by the States of New York and New Jersey, and in a modified form by the State of Massachusetts. It is too early yet to say how these laws will work in practice, for while they are to some extent founded upon the British law, they vary from it in important particulars, owing to the different forms of government in the two countries. The adulterations found in the few investigations that have been undertaken have generally been of the same character as those found in England in a few cases the business of substituting one article for another has risen to the importance of a regular trade. The oleomargarine- and the glucose-factories are illustrations in point. Both of these industries have risen to large proportions during the last ten years, and much needless alarm has been created by their operations. The opponents of each have gone so far as to ask Congress to adopt legislation practically prohibitory in its character. Milk. This has long been a favorite article upon which to practise the art of adulteration, and this art begins its operations before the milk is drawn from the cow. The whole aim of the farmer who raises milk for sale is to obtain as much as possible from the cow, without regard to its richness in cream, so that a cow which gives a large yield of poor milk is very often spoken of as "a milkman's cow." Pure, unadulterated cow's milk varies considerably in composition, being influenced not only by the food of the animal, but also by the breed, the length of time she has been milking, and various other circumstances. The following extremes were found in analyzing the milk of seventy cows from the vicinity of Boston; the milk in each case was vouched for as pure, having been brought directly from the cows to the laboratory by trustworthy persons: In New York a strong effort has been made to stop the sale of skimmed milk, even when it is sold for what it is, the officers asserting that if the sale of skimmed milk is allowed it will be impossible to stop the sale of watered milk. They ignore the facts of the case in their discussion of it. It is just as easy to distinguish between skimmed and watered milk as it is to distinguish between whole and watered milk. Pure skimmed milk differs from whole milk in two respects: first, it has less fat, this being a necessary result of the removal of the cream; secondly, it has a higher specific gravity; the cream being the lightest constituent of the milk, of course its removal increases the density of the remainder. The difference may be readily seen by comparison of the following analyses; the first is that of a sample of pure milk; the second, of the same milk watered; the third, of the same milk skimmed : Milk is rarely skimmed as closely as that in the third example, which was skimmed by the centrifugal machine within a short time after it was drawn from the cow. This skimmed milk finds a ready sale in cities at two-thirds the price of whole milk. Watering and skimming appear to be the main frauds practised in the milk business, the latter being a fraud only when the skimmed milk is sold as whole milk. A common practice among milkmen is topping the cans; that is, allowing the cans to stand for some hours, and then pouring off the cream that has risen to the top, and filling the cans either from cans which have been similarly topped or with water. Occasionally in summer a little bicarbonate of soda is used to prevent the curdling of the milk. Boracic acid has also been used for the same purpose. Butter and Cheese.-Until very recently the butter and cheese sold in this country were free from adulteration, although often of very poor quality; occasionally a sample was found which contained starch, and many of the makers were not above allowing all the buttermilk and water possible to remain in their product. Fats other than those produced from cream may for a long time have been used to mix with butter, but the business of openly producing a substitute for butter was first begun by A. Paraf in 1873. In that year he obtained a U. S. patent for the production of an artificial butter, and organized a company for its manufacture. The company soon found that this patent was worthless unless they held the rights belonging to M. Mége of Paris, France. They accordingly procured an assignment from him and had the patent issued in this country. This patent has been used since its issue as a weapon with which to annoy their competitors, but neither they nor their opponents have ever used it for any other purpose, and very little if any artificial butter has ever been made by strictly following the original patent. In order to cover as much ground as possible, it has been reissued twice, in each reissue matter being changed which M. Mége in his English and French patents declares is essential to the perfecting of the product. M. Mége seems to have had two ideas in view: the first of these was the production of a pure odorless fat which could be used for food purposes, and the second was the conversion of this fat into a substance resembling butter. As a pharmacist he was of course familiar with the method used by the trade to procure a fat pure and free from odor, the essentials being that the fat be perfectly clean and fresh, and that it be not burnt in the rendering. He endeavored to improve on the ordinary method of rendering by digesting or dissolving out the membrane by means of an artificial gastric juice made from the stomach of a hog or sheep with acid phosphate of lime, hoping in this manner to be able to render at a temperature as low as animal heat. Attempts to follow the patent in this respect have invariably resulted in failure. Experience has shown that good results cannot be obtained at a temperature much below 116° Fahr., even with the use of the gastric juice, and that in practice it is better to dispense with the juice and to render at a temperature considerably above 125°, which is the maximum laid down in the last reissue. The next operation proposed by Mége was lowering the melting-point of the fat until it corresponded with that of butter; this he accomplished by allowing the fats to crystallize, and then subjecting them to pressure; in this way he removed the excess of stearine contained in the fat. This process was not new with him, it having long been in use for the production of tallow oil and stearine. nomical at a temperature of from 140° to 160° Fahr. The rendering-kettles employed may be heated by direct steam blown into the fat or by water- or steam-jackets. The water-jackets seem to be preferred, as they give a more even temperature and produce a somewhat better product than when steam is blown directly into the fat. As soon as the fat is completely melted it is allowed to settle, some common salt or strong brine being generally added to promote the separation of the scrap. Sometimes a little soda-ash is added for the same purpose. The clear oil is drawn off into coolers, where it stands until it has cooled to a temperature of about 100° Fahr. It is then transferred to the press-cloths, about two pounds being placed in each cloth; these press-cloths are simply pieces of sheeting about eighteen inches square. The semi-fluid mass is placed in the centre of the cloth, and the four edges are then folded over it, so as completely to enclose it; many hundreds of such packages are placed in a suitable press, being separated from each other by iron plates. The press is maintained at a temperature of from 95° to 100° Fahr. The oil is run from the press directly into barrels, in which it is kept until it is wanted for use. Some of the largest factories in this country do not attempt to make butter, but ship their entire product to Holland in this shape. If it is desired to make butter, a certain portion of the oil is melted; sometimes 20 to 25 per cent. of butter is added; the stronger the butter the less is needed. The butter is added solely for flavor. The melted mass is now churned with either sour milk or buttermilk until an emulsion is formed; it is then run from the churn into pounded ice or ice-water, so In 1848, William Palmer took out an English pat- as to chill it suddenly and prevent its crystallization. ent, in which he proposed to utilize the softer parts of Some coloring is generally added in the churn to give tallow as a substitute for lard or butter in cooking; in it the proper tint of butter. The addition of coloringthis patent he very fully describes the method used to matter was made a criminal offence by a recent act of obtain a pure fat. This process, with the single ex- the legislature of New York, an exception being made ception of the temperature employed, is substantially in favor of such products as are manufactured under the one now used in the artificial-butter factories in this U. S. patents. The butter-like mass is taken from the country. Both Mége and Palmer suggest that the tal-ice-water and worked in the same manner as ordinary low oil obtained by their respective processes may be butter. This artificial butter so closely resembles the used in a pure state as a substitute for butter or lard genuine article when it is fresh that no one but an exin cooking, and when so used there is no doubt of its pert can tell them apart. There can be no objection being an excellent substitute; it has been sold to a small urged against its sale that cannot be equally urged extent in this country under the trade name of "oxine," against the sale of genuine butter. It is only its sale and deserves to be far more widely known. Mége goes under a false name that is to be condemned. Good a step farther and converts the tallow oil into a substance oleomargarine is certainly superior as an article of diet resembling butter. This he does as follows: "This to poor butter. The law in several of the States perfatty body, then, is taken and mixed (at animal heat) mits its sale, but requires it to be marked "oleomargawith its own weight of water, to which have been added rine." The practice of adulterating genuine butter th of mammary tissues, 1th of bicarbonate of soda, with 25 or 30 per cent. of oleomargarine is said to be 3th of fresh milk caseum, and a sufficient quantity of very common in the vicinity of New York, where the yellow color. The whole is digested for at least three oil for the purpose is readily obtainable. Lard has also hours, stirring during that time and keeping up the ani- been used for the same purpose both in New York and mal heat. When the transformation is complete the in Chicago; if the amount used is not over 15 per cent. mixture is left to cool." Such was the original Mége the fraud is very difficult to detect. process. The manufacture of the so-called oleomargarine, as now carried on in the best factories in the United States, is substantially as follows: The fresh suet, as soon as it is received from the slaughter-houses, is thrown into cold water-in summer ice is frequently used. This is done for two purposes: first, to remove the animal heat as quickly as possible; secondly, to get rid of the blood and dirt, of which there is always more or less adhering to the fat; the fat is then carefully sorted over and any bloody pieces that may be present are removed. It is absolutely necessary, in order to make a good product, that the fat be fresh and sweet; if it be tainted in the slightest degree it is impossible to make a good butter from it. After sorting, the fat is passed through cutting-machines similar to those used in the manufacture of sausage; this preliminary grinding serves to break up the tissues and render the next operation much easier. The hashed fat falls from the cutting-machine directly into renderingkettles, where it is heated to a temperature of from 125° to 212° Fahr., according to the fancy of the manufacturer. The operation succeeds best and is most eco Cheese is made by the use of skimmed milk and the tallow oil, and is said to be fully equal in flavor to good whole-milk cheese. The oil is melted and stirred into the milk, and the cheese is then made and ripened in. the usual way. There is no very definite method of arriving at the amount of oleomargarine manufactured annually, but it is very large. One factory in New York makes twenty tons a day, and this is only one out of a dozen or more engaged in the business. The principal opposition to the manufacture and use of oleomargarine comes not from the consumers of it, but from the butter-dealers and producers, who find that its use interferes seriously with their trade. Flour and Bread.-Cases of adulteration of flour and bread seem to be quite rare in this country. A number of examinations have been made in New York and New England to see if the bread sold by bakers contained alum, but these investigations have generally led to negative results, alum having been reported in but one or two cases. Cream of Tartar.-This seems to be the most in the form of crystals, but this form has not been extensively adulterated of any substance investigated, A sugar has been placed on the market to a consid- P= 200(S+S1), in which S and Si equal the readings of the polariscope before and after inversion. The sum of these is taken if one is positive, or reads to the right, and the other is negative, or reads to the left; the difference is taken if they are both positive. T equals the temperature at which the reading was made after inversion; this must be very carefully observed, as an error of a degree will make a very sensible difference in the final results. P equals the percentage of cane-sugar if the instrument Tea. The same adulterations have been reported in is graduated to read in percentages of cane-sugar and this article as have been found in England, but these the normal quantity has been taken for the test. If adulterations do not seem to be very frequent. The the solution contains only pure cane-sugar, then P will genuine article can be obtained so cheaply that at pres-equal S. In the ordinary cane-sugars of commerce we ent there is but little inducement to adulterate; some generally find that P is one or two degrees lower than of the lower grades cost but ten or twelve cents per S. This is generally said to be due to the presence of pound. The adulteration most frequently found con- other active substances upon which the acid acts in a sists in the use of exhausted leaves; this fraud is different manner from what it does upon the canesupposed to originate in China, as it would be difficult sugar. If the sugar under examination contains any to obtain a supply of the necessary material in this considerable amount of starch-sugar, the reading after country. polarization becomes smaller, and when the starchsugar exceeds 25 per cent. will even become positive. Sugar, Syrup, and Honey.-Most European writers make mention of the adulteration of sugar with starchglucose, but few of them say that they have found it, and none give any accurate methods for its detection. Until recently chemists generally have been under the impression that starch-glucose, grape-sugar, and invert-sugar were practically one and the same, and the directions given for the detection of starch-glucose merely served to show that some reducing substance was present. All commercial sugars, with the exception of the best refined white, the so-called centrifugals, maple and beet-root sugars, contain substances capable of reducing an alkaline solution of tartrate of copper. This may vary from a few tenths of 1 per cent., as in the highest grades of soft sugars, to as much as 15 per cent. in the dark molasses sugar, so that the common direction given in the books for the detection of glucose is misleading: glucose, or starch-sugar, as it is best to call it, is a different substance from any of the sugars found in the sugar-cane. The best grades found in the market are either in the form of a white, crystalline or non-crystalline mass, or in the form of a coarse powder having a dead-white appearance, entirely unlike the appearance of cane-sugar of the same color. Starchsugar, when in this form, is known in the market as grape-sugar; the fine granular form is produced by grating the mass to powder; it can also be produced The starch-sugar is not very constant in its relations towards polarized light; some samples will polarize as high as 130°, while others will polarize only 60° or 70° on the instrument graduated to read percentages of cane-sugar if the same amount is taken as would be taken of cane-sugar. The samples polarizing the highest contain dextrine; this is readily acted upon by hydrochloric acid, and its polarization is reduced, but it never falls below 60°, and if the action is of only short duration it is but little affected. This change of course introduces an element of uncertainty into the calculation if we attempt to find how much starchsugar is in a given sample, but it does not prevent the detection of the adulteration. Sugar-house syrup is more extensively adulterated than sugar; a large proportion of the syrup sold in the West is merely starch-syrup flavored with about onefifth of sugar-house syrup. This fraud is even easier to detect with the polariscope than the adulteration of sugar. Sugar-house syrups rarely polarize over 40°, while the mixed syrups generally polarize over 110°, so that no inversion is needed to detect the fraud; indeed, the mere appearance and taste of the sample will often detect it. The starch-sugar has generally a slightly bitter taste that remains on the tongue after the taste of the cane-sugar has disappeared. Maple syrup coming from Chicago, and labeled 'pure Michigan maple syrup," was found to consist of starch-glucose flavored with maple-sugar. Pure maple-sugar consists almost entirely of cane-sugar, and only contains traces of other sugars, and the syrup differs from the sugar only in containing more water. Honey is manufactured on the same plan; only here the bees are employed to assist in the fraud. They are furnished with a supply of starch-sugar, which they store in their combs; when these combs are also fraudulent, being made from paraffine and furnished to the bees, who fill them with glucose and cap them with genuine wax, it is difficult to see how the art of adulteration could be carried further. Genuine honey polarizes light to the left, while that containing cane-sugar or glucose polarizes to the right. Bees fed on cane-sugar or molasses produce genuine honey, since they are able to invert the cane-sugar. Candies are very generally adulterated with starchsugar. This varies in amount with the grade of the goods, the cheap hard candies containing the least, while the high-priced "creams frequently contain as much as 25 per cent. It is used in the latter to keep them soft and give them the cream-like appearance. It certainly makes a nice confection, and when it is pure and free from acid and excess of gypsum it is difficult to find any objection to its use that will not equally well apply to cane-sugar; its food-value is probably about the same. Some years ago poisonous colors in candy were not uncommon, but so much has been said and written on the subject that of late it has become difficult to find them. The same may also be said of candies weighted with "terra alba," or gypsum. Spices.-These have long been a favorite article on which to practise the art of adulteration. The only safe way to buy spices is to purchase the unground and grind them at home in small quantities as wanted for use; for, while many manufacturers do grind and pack pure spices, a spice never keeps as well after it is ground as it does in the whole state. The most common adulteration at present is the mixing in of lower grades of the same goods, the higher grade being used for name and flavor. Black pepper is adulterated with lower grades and with roasted ship-bread. Mustard is frequently mixed with flour and colored with turmeric or with a lake made from Persian berries. Some works give the amount of oil in the mustard-seed as an index of purity, but in this country it is a common practice to press the seeds after they are crushed and before grinding. This pressing removes about two-thirds of the oil. The mustard is said to grind more easily and to keep better than when it contains the full amount of oil. Capsicum is sometimes adulterated with logwood, and is said to be colored with oxide of iron. In regard to oxide of iron, it may be remarked that samples of the pods have given as much oxide of iron as was found in those alleged to be adulterated. A very fair imitation of cassia is made by grinding almond-shells and flavoring them with oil of cassia. This fraud can be detected with the microscope. Canned Goods.-The rapid settlement of the mining-regions of the West by a class of men who have plenty of money at their command, and the inability of the region to supply them with food, have created a great demand for canned goods of various kinds. These are very generally of good quality and well packed. But sometimes inferior tin plate is used in the cans, and they are carelessly soldered, and thus become contaminated with lead. A large trade is carried on along the coast of Maine in packing fictitious sardines. These "sardines" are either smelts or the better parts of the porgy. They are packed in cotton-seed oil instead of olive oil. They make a palatable dish, but they are not sardines. Cotton-seed oil has come into use largely of late years as a table oil; it is sold under the names salad oil or sweet oil, and very often as olive oil. These names are all fraudulent, since the purchaser generally expects to get olive oil. It is a sweet, bland oil, but it has no flavor, and is much inferior to olive, or even mustard-seed, oil as a table oil. Machinery olive oil is frequently adulterated with it: for oiling wool or machinery it is worthless, as it rapidly gums when exposed to the air. Mineral oils are used for adulterating animal and vegetable oils; they are easily detected by their fluorescence and by their failure to saponify when boiled with alcoholic potash. Lard oil is also adulterated with cotton-seed oil. The soda-water sold from fountains long ago ceased to have any soda in it; it is merely water impregnated with carbonic acid gas. The syrups used with the water are generally flavored with the so-called fruitessences: these are of artificial origin, being mixtures of various ethers. A solution of saponin is used to give the foam, and thus enable a skilful dispenser to fill a half-pint glass with about two table spoonfuls of liquid. Drugs and Medicines.-Dr. Diehl reports to the National Board of Health as follows: "The drug market must be unqualifiedly pronounced to be fair. That is to say, not that poor and adulterated drugs are absent in the market, or that inferior medicines are not dispensed in our pharmacies, but persons who know, or who really desire to obtain, articles of standard quality have very little difficulty in so doing, and as a general rule can be suited by respectable dealers through the land. On the other hand, ignorant persons, or those regulating their purchases by prices rather than by the quality, and being consequently indifferent to the character of the dealer, are very likely to meet with lowgrade and adulterated goods, or at best are frequently supplied with goods of an indifferent character.' The chief complaint against drugs seems to be not adulteration, but inferior quality; this arises partly from carelessness in gathering, and partly from deterioration after the drugs are collected. Prof. Diehl gives a long list of sophistications that have been met with during the past ten years; a large proportion of these fall into the latter class. Paints and Colors.-The chief complaint in regard to paints comes from the substitution of zinc-white and barytes for white lead, the mixture being sold as pure white lead. For some purposes the substitute is better than the original, but the zinc and barytes do not have the covering-power of the pure lead. In places exposed to hydric sulphide they do not darken as lead does. Some samples of vermilion consist of red lead brightened with eosine. Logwood extract is largely mixed with molasses. Sugar has been used to adulterate the aniline colors; the color, dissolved in alcohol, is sprinkled over the granulated sugar; the alcohol, evaporating, leaves the sugar coated with the color. Wines, Beers, and Distilled Liquors.—In adulteration of these articles there seems to be but little peculiar to this country, and the remarks in regard to drugs apply equally well to them. In Textile Fabrics the most extensive adulteration is carried on in woollen goods; shoddy is freely used. For many classes of goods cotton is carded with the wool; this cotton may amount to as much as 70 per cent. of the weight of the goods, and yet the goods will still have the appearance of being made of wool. This is particularly the case in regard to white goods, such as flannels and blankets, Knit underwear, known in the trade as merino, consists largely of cotton. These mixed goods when uncolored wash and wear better than pure wool, the only fraud being in selling them as all wool. (S. P. SH.) ADULTERY. In most of the United States adultery is regarded both as a crime and as a See Vol. I. breach of the marriage contract. In each respect, but especially the former, the legislation of the different States is amazingly p. 160 Am. ed. (p, 177 Edin. ed.). at variance. |