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other, and that, too, without cause. The same fallacy obtains in the reasoning, whether you extend or limit this faculty of the will to begin a new causal series. When Martineau asserts the will to be a cause "which terminates the balance of possibilities in favor of this phenomenon rather than that,” he maintains absolute freedom of volition, and lays himself open to all the objections urged above.

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9. The Consciousness of Freedom. There are, it is said, certain facts which make for free will. hold, therefore," says Sidgwick, "that against the formidable array of cumulative evidence offered for Determinism, there is but one argument of real force; the immediate affirmation of consciousness in the moment of deliberate action.”1

(1) Now, if it were really true that we have a consciousness of being free in the sense in which this term has been used, this feeling would have as little weight as a scientific proof as the feeling that the sun moves around the earth has for astronomy. Where a man accepts this "immediate intuition of the soul's freedom" as a proof of its actuality, he is simply asserting that his soul is free because he feels it to be free.2

(2) And even granting that such a feeling can prove anything, must we not show (a) that it exists, and (b) what it tells us? Libertarians claim that men are conscious of being free, and see herein a proof of their thesis. But the all-important ques2 Dr. Ward.

1 Methods of Ethics, p. 67.

tion is, whether men really say and believe themselves to be free in the sense in which these philosophers claim that they are free. The libertarian is

apt to throw into this consciousness of freedom his entire doctrine, thereby garbling the facts to suit his theory.

It is necessary, therefore, to analyze this consciousness of freedom. Before the volition takes place there may be present in consciousness a feeling that I can do either this or that. In the moment of willing no such feeling exists, while after the act has been willed and executed I say to myself, I might have done otherwise. Now all the possibilities of action occur to me, my mind is in a different state, certain ideas and feelings that formerly exerted an irresistible influence are no longer present, or only dimly remembered. All the conditions being changed, I feel as though I could have acted differently. And so I could have done, if only I had willed differently, and so I could have willed differently, if only the conditions of willing had been different. I can do what I will to do; I am free to get up or sit down, free to go home or stay here, to give up all my prospects in life, if only I will to do Never does my consciousness tell me that a volition is uncaused, that there was no reason for my willing as I did will, that the will is the absolute beginning of an occurrence, that at any moment any volition may arise regardless of all antecedent processes. Least of all does it tell me that I am the

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manifestation of an intelligible self which I feel to be free.

Against those who so strongly emphasize the sense of freedom, we may urge the deterministic standpoint generally accepted in all the affairs of life. We regard the actions of men as necessary functions of their character. In all historical sciences, we invariably seek for the causes of events; we analyze the characters of the actors, and show the influences of their times and surroundings. Our entire social life is based on the conviction that under certain conditions men will act in a certain way. That this is so, let the methods of education and government attest.

10. Responsibility. - The feeling of responsibility is also urged against determinism, and accepted as a proof of liberty. This, however, proves nothing but that acts and motives depend upon character or flow from the will of the agent. The person regards every voluntary action of his as the expression of his personality, which, in truth, it is. The act is his, willed by him and acknowledged by him, the product of his own character. He does not regard his character as something outside of himself, as something forcing him in a certain direction, pushing him now hither, now thither, but identifies himself with it. In fact, he is his character, and therefore holds himself responsible for his acts and motives. And because he feels himself as an agent, the acts as his acts, he sees no reason why this self from which

the acts emanated should not be held responsible. Who else should be held responsible but the willing personality?

But if character is the necessary product of conditions, why hold any one responsible, even though he feel himself responsible? If man's acts are the effect of causes, why punish him for what he cannot help? Because punishment is a powerful determining cause. Why should I be held responsible for my deeds? "The reply is," in Tyndall's words, "the right of society to protect itself against aggressive injurious forces, whether they be bound or free, forces of nature or forces of man. "1 Punishment can have a meaning only in a deterministic scheme of things. We can by education make a moral being out of man, that is, influence his character, determine him to act for the social good. Riehl expresses it epigrammatically: "Man is not held responsible because he is by birth a moral being; he becomes a moral being because he is held responsible."

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11. Determinism and Practice. There are many men who, while acknowledging the arguments of the deterministic theory to be unanswerable, yet reject it on practical grounds. They claim that life would be impossible on such an hypothesis.

The deterministic theory is not, however, a discouraging and paralyzing doctrine. On the contrary, the knowledge that we are determined must

1 Fortnightly Review, 1877, "Science and Man," p. 612.

determine us to avoid certain conditions, and seek others more favorable. Determinism does not de

stroy the energy of action. Fatalistic nations like the Mohammedans were far more energetic than Christian ascetics, who believed in the will's absolute freedom. Determinism is the strongest motive to action. If I am exceedingly desirous of fame, how can the knowledge that this desire depends upon conditions affect me? Why should it make me less ambitious? If I have been morally educated, I shall continue to strive after certain things in spite of my belief in determinism. I shall go right on deliberating and choosing as heretofore, and make an effort to live an honorable, useful life. "Now when it is said by a fatalist," Butler writes, "that the whole constitution of nature, and the actions of men, that every thing and every mode and every circumstance of every thing, is necessary, and could not possibly have been otherwise, it is to be observed, that this necessity does not exclude deliberation, choice, preference, and acting from certain principles and to certain ends; because all this is a matter of undoubted experience, acknowledged by all, and what every man may, every moment, be conscious of."1 "The author of nature then being certainly of some character or other, notwithstanding necessity, it is evident this necessity is as reconcilable with the particular character of benevolence, veracity, and justice, in him, which attributes are

1 Analogy of Religion, chap. vi, p. 153.

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