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reported a kind of wild honey was made; but does not fay that he faw any fo manufactured.

'full of honey, by which he under ftands a sweet juice, which, by the preffure of a fcrew engine, and concreted by fire, becomes

"About the fame period, Willermus Tyrenfis fpeaks of fugar as made in the neighbourhood of Tyre, and fent from thence to the fartheft parts of the world.

"Marinus Sanutus mentions, that in the countries subject to the fultan, fugar was produced in large quantity, and that it likewife was made in Cyprus, Rhodes, Amorea, Marta, Sicily, and other places belonging to the Chriftians.

"Albertus Agnenfis relates, that about the fame period, the Cru-fugar.' This is the first account faders found fweet honeyed reeds, I have met with of the employin great quantity, in the meadows ment of heat or fire in the making about Tripoli, in Syria, which of fugar. reeds were called zucra. Thefe the people (the Crusaders' army) 'fucked, and were much pleafed ' with the fweet taste of them, with which they could fcarcely be fatisfied. This plant (the author tells us) is cultivated with great labour of the hufbandmen every ' year. At the time of harveft, they bruife it when ripe in mortars; and fet by the ftrained juice in veffels, til it is concreted in form of fnow, or of white falt. This, when fcraped, they mix with bread, or rub it with water, and take it as pottage; and it is to them more wholefome and pleafing than the honey of bees. The people who were engaged in the fieges of Albaria Marra and 6 Archas, and fuffered dreadful hunger, were much refreshed 'hereby.'

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"The fame author, in the account of the reign of Baldwin, mentions eleven camels, laden with fugar, being taken by the Crufaders, fo that it must have been made in confiderable quantity.

"Jacobus de Vitriaco mentions, that in Syria reeds grow that are

"Hugo Falcandus, an author who wrote about the time of the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa, fpeaks of fugar being in his time produced in great quantity in Sicily. It ap pears to have been used in two ftates; one, wherein the juice was boiled down to the confiftence of honey, and another where it was boiled farther, fo as to form a folid body of fugar.

"The foregoing are all the paffages that have occurred to my! reading on this fubject. They are but few and inconfiderable, but may fave trouble to others, who are willing to make a deeper en quiry into the hiftory of this fubstance."

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.

CONCLUDING ESSAY on the SCIENCE of ORCHARDING. BY THOMAS SKIP DYOT BUCKNALL, Efq.

[From the Fourteenth Volume of the TRANSACTIONS of the SOCIETY inftituted at LONDON, for the Encouragement of ARTS, MANU FACTURES, and COMMERCE.]

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be induced to grow, by a fuitable manure and proper management.

"The baneful effects of canker may be nearly banished from the move delicate fruit trees, and the oozing of gum in great measure prevented in the different fpecies of the cherry, and other ftone fruits.

"In the first paper I did myfelf the honour of prefenting to the fociety, I reprefented that pruning is an important article, with re

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"Secondly-the engrafting ofgard to the health of trees, and new bark upon trees that have been injured by cattle, carts, &c. and thus trees kept in a perfect state, which otherwife would have died, or foon gone to decay. But I with previously to imprefs on the minds of the fociety, that, in the whole extenfive orchards throughout the kingdom, most of the ftandard fruit-trees may be prevented be`coming rotten, hollow, or much decayed, until, by great length of time, a drynefs, want of energy, or by their own weight, they fall into actual diffolution; and as it is allowed, that large trees yield the moft productive crops, either individually, or per acre, attention fhould be given to run the trees to fize; for at prefent there is no competent idea to what extent trees may

their bearing; and, if judicioufly done, they will come into bearing fooner, and continue in vigour for nearly double their common age.'-(See N.A.Regifter for 1793, p. [170].) That attentive care which choofes the proper foil; places the trees at due diftances, according to their natural growth; keeps the branches free and open, that the fun may pafs over the ground; all being perfectly pruned and regularly cleaned, fo that the tree may become healthy, round and large, and carefully apply the manure and culture most proper for fertilizing the lands appropriated to orcharding: when thefe advantages fhall be really united, it may read fonably be expected that the fruits must be larger, finer coloured, freer I 2

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from fpecks, and of a richer quality; whence fuch fruits muft have a pre-eminence in the markets; or, if originally intended to be thrown into the mill, the cider will be more in quantity, ftronger, and higher flavoured; proofs of which may eafily be brought. As I apprehend the orchards and ftandard fruit-gardens of this country may foon be estimated at fome hundred thousand acres, and fhould expect from the improvements attempted to be introduced, that in ten years time each acre, on an average, will increase by the improved culture, to more than one ound per acre in value per annum, I hope it will not be thought arrogant in me to fay, that I look upon myfelf as being the actual means of benefiting my country to the amount of more than three hundred thousand pounds

a-year.

"And if orchardifts will confider this pofition to be founded in truth, it will be an incitement to their exertions. The premiums offered by the fociety to promote the proper planting and culture of orchards, it is expected will fpread emulation among the planters, and (aided by the extenfive improvements of inland navigation, by which fruit and cider may be conveyed from one extremity of the kingdom to the other), the culture of orchards may be regarded as a national concern.

"When pruning fhall be fully understood, and generally practifed, the benefits refulting therefrom will appear to be much more the effect of judgment than the refult of actual labour; for I have often mentioned, among my friends, my expectation, when the trees are properly brought into order, the whole fyftem will be little other than penknife-pruning, except what may arife from accident or neglect. So far from

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wifhing to have large limbs wantonly taken from trees, the rule is, keep the branches out of the reach of cattle, then let them follow their natural growth.' (N. A. Regifter for 1794, P. [144]). This would foon be verified, if a few proprietors and cottagers confidered the nature of this bufinefs, and began pruning their own trees from the firit planting, by way of example. When the cottager comes to prune his master's trees, then will each concur in opinion, for it depends more upon the mind than upon the hand; and yet there is no mystery-the mafter fpeaking, the cottager comprehends his directions, and thus the work would go on properly. In Mr. Boulding's cèrtificate (N. A. R. for 1793, p. [173], we were fometimes in

doubt whether a particular branch 'fhould be taken off or not; the rule established was, confider,

will that branch be in the way 'three years hence? if it will, the "fooner it is off the better.'

"I have taken much pains to correct prejudice and establish a rational culture, and have no doubt but it will become general; yet, I must confefs, I fhould like to fee it fully established in my own time. The whole fyftem is grounded on the regular operations of nature in the productions of vegetation: the advantages are fully explained in the refpective papers; and, for the mere labourer, there is a fhort abftract and inftructions in Vol. XIII. (N. A. R. for 1795, p. [177].) I have reconfidered every thought, and find them all concenter in the fingle word HEALTH.

"My chief inducement in writing on the art of pruning, was to refcue fo valuable a branch of agriculture from neglect, or from the more deftructive manner in

which the work has hitherto been performed. Obferve in my new fyftem, the trees continue of the fame fize both before and after 'pruning, and all the extreme 'fhoots keep at the fame distance, which is an improvement not be'fore brought into practice.' (N. A. R. for 1794, P. [144].)

"I have undertaken to produce four apple-trees within the fame inclosure, each of which fhall cover ten poles of ground long before they fall into actual decay; and for that purpose have measured four trees on the north fide of Sittingbourne, in an orchard belonging to a gentleman at Maidstone; and, with proper management, there is no doubt but they may be brought to that fize. As they stand close to the road, where they will be under general obfervation, I fhould think, if a vifible improvement becomes apparent in trees thus marked for public trial, it would counteract the negligent habit of ftill fuffering large trees to continue fo incumbered; these trees are of great magnitude, and cannot be lefs than an hundred years old; are in high health; yet much over-run with stumps, dead wood, mofs, &c. I remember the ground more than forty years, and think if my fyftem had been introduced when that orchard was first planted, there would have been, instead of four trees, at leaft ten times that number, and of equal value. I must fay they are noble trees, and might become beautiful, if that epithet may with propriety be applied to an apple

I have had a long correfpondence with the gentleman, either to purchase the orchard, or to have the liberty of pruning thofe trees gratis; and, under fuch permiffion, I have determined not a branch fhall be touched, but with

confent of the tenant: I must not fay more upon this fubject until I know the refult; if I am difappointed, there are other trees in the neighbourhood of the fame age, but they are neither fo healthy, nor fo well fuited for my purpose.

"Several times I have been asked how much an old tree ought to be pruned? - The proper anfwer would be, if it be very old, and much incumbered, do not let in the cold winds; but, with care, take off the ftumps, with all the decayed, rotten, and blighted branches, leaving the reft to the difcretion of each perfon, who will foon fee how much is neceffary; felf-conviction being the beft fchool for improvement. The truth is, whoever would form orchards to produce credit to himself and profit to his fucceffor, muft not fuffer the trees to become old before the operations commence, but determine, that pruning, cleaning, and rubbing off the rotten bark, fhould be begun in the nursery, and regu-" larly continued to the extremity of old-age; from which method very little wood need be taken off at a time; and, by ufing medication, the wounds will heal, without causing any more blemishes than the tree was subject to at the time the limb was taken off; for it is not the fir cutting which blemishes the tree, but the corrofion, arifing from neglect.

"Let each perfon therefore determine, that no standard fruit-tree fhould be fuffered to remain incumbered with rotten and decaying branches; for thefe, admitting the water into the tree, and contaminating the balfamic virtues of the fap, lay the foundation of fure deftruction to the tree, and furnish to infects a nidus under the rotten bark, in which they depofit their eggs.

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"I mentioned to Mr. Fauffet, in the year 1789, as appears in Vol. XI. (N. A. R. for 1793, p. [171],) that the greater part of the mifchief affecting my trees, arofe from infects, vermin, and microfcopic animalculæ, getting under the bark, which has the laft yer been more fully elucidated by William Hampfon, of Dewnap, efq. in the thirteenth volume of Tranfactions, (N. A. R. for 1795, p. [177],) under the article Infects; and the prevention is there fo properly pointed out by him, that, in the character of orchardift general, I with ftrongly to enforce the practice. I have often feen whole crops of the more delicate apples deftroyed by the foliage being eaten off in the fpring: the hardy fruits are not fo liable to thefe difafters, for the ftrong health of those trees in a great measure fecures them from fuch depredations.

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"Laft fummer, in Kent, I had much converfation with fome very intelligent men, on the fubject of orcharding and general agriculture. A gentleman on the hills fhewed me fome large trees, and asked my opinion. I replied, Do nothing; for you can gain no credit by them, from the energy or active 'powers of vegetation having been long exhaufted in thofe trees: but I pointed out fome young ones where pruning might be happily applied, and he might make a trial on one of the large ones.

"At Brambling, I vifited an orchard at the requcft of the owner: the trees required more cleaning than pruning, and I requested he would be careful to attend the operation himself, and his orchard would become more valuable, by the quantity and quality of the fruit. I recommended him tọ enclofe the ground, which contained

about fix trees, with hurdles, and he might eafily unite that fpot with his pig-ftyes, and fuffer the hogs to. be conftantly running over that ground; and, from the manure thus obtained, the trees would receive a vifible energy, which would foon appear in the growth of thofe trees, when compared with the others, and that the improvement of the trees was to be the criterion for him to act by; for the freer the trees grow, the more effectually they recover the pruning, by throwing out young wood; and I remarked, that if the orchard was my own, I would open the gate, without reward, for the drovers to bring in the yearling cattle, which pafs the road from October to Midfummer, for three years; and fuch practice would double the value of the fruit: I mean, to what it will be ten years hence, for the trees are vifibly going off, though now they are just in a state to be recovered.

"Laft year I recommended cleaning by foap-fuds (N. A. R. for 1796, p. [176].) A gentleman at Wandfworth ufes oil, which has a wonderfully good effect. I fhould think the oil might be applied about a month after the fuds. As,I am, in large concerns, a friend to cheapnefs for the bulk of mankind, I imagine any damaged oil would do oil certainly is beneficial to trees.

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"Thefe obfervations are fufficient to fhew that I am attentive, and vary the advice, according to the state and value of the trees. Some gentlemen in my neighbourhood have made very handfome exertions; but I wish to bring the improving trees into univerfal practice, and keeping them in bearing to a great age; and would recommend that perfons, for their own fatisfaction, fhould felect a certain

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