progress of conquest and conversion. The first countries taken were Syria and Palestine; others followed in rapid succession; till, within a period of seventy years, the sway of the Mahomedans extended on one side over Persia and Turkestán, and on the other over Africa and Spain. The political authority of the Kaliphs did not decline till after the reign of Haroun -al-Rashid, or Haroun the Just, the contemporary of Charlemagne.

Arabia has no history of the age before the flood, unless particulars in regard to it should be found in the inscriptions discovered on its rocks and mountains, which have not yet been deciphered. After the flood, its general history commences with the settlement of Yoktán and his family in Yemen, to which we have referred; though some of the descendants of Cush may have fixed themselves earlier in that part of Arabia Petræa which borders on Egypt. Be that as it may, from the earliest times the Arabs seem have intermixed mostly with the Hebrews; and the affinity between their languages indicates that the two races were of a kindred stem. Like the Hebrews, also, the Arabs long led a pastoral and predatory life, which latter feature has remained with several tribes up to the present day; and for this reason they were little heard of for ages by other nations. The dreariness of their country too, protected them from the inquisitiveness and aggression of foreign powers; and, though there were times when Arabia was overrun by the Persians and the Romans, no attempt was ever made by any invader or conqueror to hold it long, or to have anything to do with it beyond keeping up an occasional settlement on its borders. It thus came in all ages to be regarded as the sanctuary of the free and the brave, and the Arabs were deemed to be a powerful people more than six hundred years before the age of David; though of the hardihood of its inhabitants, their immediate neighbours, the ancient Persians and others, did not entertain a very high opinion.

The people of Arabia were divided into two classes, namely, the wandering Arabs or Bedouins, and those that dwelt in cities and towns. The great difference between the former and the Tartars was in this, that many of the Bedouins, tired of a wandering life, would collect themselves into towns and live by trade and agriculture, which the Tartars never did, except when settling in other countries and intermixing with their inhabitants. The mode of government among the two descriptions of Arabs was to a certain extent the same: their immediate superiors were the Sheiks and Emirs, the former ruling over a collection of tents or huts, and the latter over a whole tribe. Over all these the city Arabs supported the authority of a supreme magistrate, distinguished in different ages by the different names of king, grand-emir, or kaliph, who, however, never attempted to exercise any very close or despotic superintendence; but the wandering Arabs never acknowledged any such authority. The knowledge of letters among the people was very slender, and was confined to the people of Yemen. In sciences and arts the progress made even by the latter was inconsiderable; but they were fond of poetry, and, as in India, all memorable transactions amongst them were recorded in verse. The chief accomplishments prized throughout the country were horsemanship and martial exercises with the bow, the javelin, and the sword. In physical make the Arab is not very robust; but he is well-formed and active, and insensible to fatigue. His mind is quick, his hand always ready; and he has no property to distract his attention beside his horse and his camel. The original religion of the country was the worship of the sun and stars this was followed by a variety of creeds, including Christianity on the one hand, and devil-worship on the other, till the doctrine of Mahomet was promulgated, and found ready acceptance among a people who fully appreciated its character of violence, and were kindled into enthusiasm by its promises of sensual felicity. Their

existence throughout, both before and after their conversion to Mahomedanism, has been characterized by one continuous course of wrong, robbery, and bloodshed. Civilisation cannot be said to have ever made much progress in the land; though, outside of Arabia, the Saracens or Moors, who were the followers of the Kaliphs of Bagdad, were, at one time, pre-eminently famous for it.

CHAPTER VII.

EGYPT.

EGYPT is named after Egyptus, one of its ancient kings; but in the language of the Egyptians themselves it was called Khemi, or Khem, whence the name of Chemistry, which was discovered in it, is derived. This country has been famous from the earliest times as the cradle of the sciences and arts, and the best known school for wisdom and politics in the western world. It has also always had the credit of being a very fertile place, though it varies greatly in its physical characteristics in different parts. The Nile, the largest river in the Old World, runs through it from south to north, flowing in one undivided stream for about three hundred and sixty miles before it branches off into two main channels in proceeding towards the sea. The soil on both banks of the river, as far as its floods extend, is extremely fertile; but, beyond that limit, on the west is a sandy desert, and on the east a chain of rocky mountains, both equally destitute of vegetation. The richest part of the country is that called Fayoum, or the Delta, which lies between the two main branches of the Nile and the Mediterranean, and appears to have been gradually formed by the deposits of the river. watered spots, or oases, in the which are very productive. dry, the heat being seldom vegetable life would have been completely scorched but for the overflowing of the Nile at stated periods, which, besides vivifying the soil, enriches it with an excellent slimy deposit, that increases its fruitfulness. The products of the land are chiefly corn and pulses, and also a great variety of vegetables and fruits. The pastures for fattening

There are also certain wellmidst of the western desert, The climate is exceedingly relieved by rain; and all

flocks and herds are particularly rich; and the mildness of the air admits of the cattle being left to graze as well by night as by day.

The history of Egypt has been divided into four distinct periods, the first of which begins with the creation of the world, and extends to the conquest of the country by Cambyses, in B.C. 525; the second comprises the period between the date last mentioned and the assumption of the government by the Macedonians, in B.C. 332; the third comprehends the rule of the Macedonian dynasty to B.C. 30, when the country became a province of the Roman Empire; while the last, which does not concern our present inquiry, embraces all the subsequent interval up to the present time. Of these, the first period includes the entire era of native greatness, and commences, like the history of every other really ancient country, with the creation of the world. The first king, it is said, was Hephæstus, Phtah, or Vulcan; the second, Helios, or the sun; the third, Shu, or Agathadæmon; the fourth, Cronus, or Saturn; the fifth, Osiris, with whom was also associated Isis, his wife; the sixth, Thulis; and the seventh, Typhon, who is supposed to have perished in the flood. Of the first four the accounts are not very eventful. The fifth, Osiris, also called Dionysus, is said to have married his sister Isis, and to have reigned jointly with her for some time, till he was seized by a sudden desire to wander all over the world, on the divine errand of communicating science and dispensing benefits; upon which, leaving the reins of government in the hands of his sister-wife, and placing her under the care and guidance of his friend Hermes, he proceeded first to Ethiopia, then to Arabia, thence eastward as far as the deserts of India, where he is said to have founded a city named Nyssa, and whence he diverged to the north-west in the direction of the springs of the Danube (Ister), returning to Egypt through Thrace and Greece. A short time after his return, Osiris had to encounter the revolt of his brother Typhon, by whom he was killed. In the meantime the flood had already set in; but it does not appear that the destruction in Egypt was