and color. If it is to have a definite edge, it must be held in by turf or some kind of curbing, but its normal indefiniteness of edge is often what the designer most desires in an informal scheme. Broken stone surfaces, macadam or telford roads and paths, wear better than gravel but are of a less attractive texture on account of the angularity of the particles. Paths are sometimes made of broken stone or of gravel without any binder, the individual particles lying loose, allowing water to percolate through them, and being kept in order by raking when displaced by traffic. Such a path has the advantage that it is clean and comparatively weedless, but it has the disadvantage that the material flinches under foot and makes a very unpleasant crunching noise when walked upon.

There are at present various methods of construction of broken stone and even gravel roads and paths with some tar or bituminous cement, which give a surface not widely different in appearance from that of ordinary gravel or macadam, but which bind the particles so firmly together that the surface will stand at a steep slope without being washed out by rain, and the road or path can be brought to a definite edge or molded into a definite gutter if desired, without any structural need of a curb. There are also various tar and asphalt surfaces and various surfaces of cement which, though very different in their adaptability to different kinds of traffic, are alike in being very smooth and regular. The tar and asphalt roads are dark in color, and though something may be done to improve this color by rolling in cement or sand while the surface is soft, the lighter color will seldom remain uniform if there is much traffic. Portland cement surfaces will almost inevitably wear smooth under iron-wheeled traffic and iron-shod hoofs. In walks, however, where the destructive force of traffic is less, pleasant surfaces may be obtained in concrete if enough pains be taken. Selected gravel may be scattered over the surface and rolled in while the surface is still soft. This has the disadvantage that much of the gravel has only a slight hold on the concrete and is readily broken out. The concrete may be made with a gravel selected for color and texture, and while the upper surface is still soft, some of the cement may be removed with a stiff broom and water, so revealing the gravel. This surface is more permanent. Concrete surfaces may

be

br given a pleasant texture, more or less in imitation of tile, by being scored 10 into small rectangular sections, and perhaps having small tiles set in ns at certain intersections of these scored lines, in some simple pattern. The color of concrete may be modified by the use of various pigments of in powdered form, but this should be done in moderation, both because too much of the pigment is likely to injure the concrete, and because the brighter colors are likely to be harsh and unpleasant in a pavement.

en

an

Brick may be used for roads, brick and tile for paths, giving a great range of tones of terra-cotta and gray and yellow. The texture of the material itself gives a great deal of choice, from the smooth surface of tile through the surface of water-struck, sand-struck, and wire-cut brick to brick surfaces pressed into patterns and textures or projecting lugs. The larger texture of the separate blocks and their cement mortar joints gives an opportunity not only for simple variation of surface but for patterns of any degree of complexity. In roads, a simple laying of the bricks breaking joints, with their long dimension across the road, is usually best. Any pattern of recognizable forms, except perhaps two stripes accenting the sides of the road, is likely to be wasted in a long road, particularly if the traffic is fast. In paths, many interesting patterns may be wrought out by the use of brick or Etile or both in combination.* In larger paved areas at the junction of paths or at the foot of steps, or on terraces, for instance, where some further interest of surface is desirable, more elaborate patterns may be used and even a greater diversity of material, perhaps with the introduction of slabs of marble or of glazed tile in various colors. Stone laid in flat slabs is a paving which lends itself particularly to the construction of garden paths and which is much used for this purpose, especially in England. There is a great choice of color and texture, and the more the slabs are worn, the better they are likely to appear; indeed, some particularly pleasant walks in our modern American gardens have been made from the worn and discarded stones of the sidewalk of a nearby city. Stone slab paving may be arranged in formal shapes or it may be laid as it comes from the quarry, rectilinear only where it comes on the outside edge of the walk. When laid in loam, the

* See illustrations in Jekyll and Weaver, Gardens for Small Country Houses, Chapter XV, Methods of Paving, p. 171-178.

cracks between the stones may soon become full of moss, and indeed, where little traveled, they may be planted with very low-growing, rockloving plants.

The restful green surface of turf paths, not offering much color contrast with other foliage, makes them especially suited both to broad central open spaces, rather turf panels than paths, and also to the most subordinate paths, merely ways to go among the flowers. The upkeep cost of such paths is considerable, if the grass is kept smoothly cut and the edges trimmed, as is true of all sod edges for flower beds, for unless the flowers are kept back from the sod they overshadow it and destroy it in places. When paths of different width and importance form parts of a pattern, this relative interest may be recognized by the choice of their surfacing material. A path along a terrace might be stone-paved, the main garden paths might be of gravel, and the subordinate paths, among the flower beds, of grass.

CHAPTER XI

TYPES OF LANDSCAPE DESIGNS

When the landscape architect comes to apply to the actual problems Landscape which he handles professionally the knowledge with which his experi- Designs According to ence has provided him, he tries to meet the demands of each problem Typical with a design which, though almost necessarily sacrificing some factors Uses which are theoretically desirable, combines on the whole the maximum of esthetic and economic excellence possible for him to create under the particular circumstances.* These circumstances are the local conditions of topography, soil, climate, and so on, the financial means available, the preferences of those whom the landscape architect serves as to the appearance and expression of the design, and the economic uses t to which the design is to be put, with their resultant fixing of the sizes and shapes of many parts of the composition. No two problems are ever exactly alike, but very many problems arise in which people of the same general habits, ideals, and social condition desire land to be arranged for use and enjoyment of much the same kind. Beauty of appearance may be sought in many different ways, and where one kind of beauty proves to be impossible with the sizes and shapes necessary to be used in the design, another kind may be attained, perhaps at a different scale and with a different esthetic expression. Each typical well-defined use, however, has its more or less characteristic effect on the composition, no matter what the other circumstances may be. The result of this fact is that the ordinary work of the landscape architect falls into classes most readily according to use, and where this use is a common one, — one in which the habits of men are much alike, -the designs which serve this use will have much in common and may well be discussed together. Some of the types of landscape designs

*Cf. Chapter III, p. 27.

† Cf. Chapter II, p. 18.

according to use which naturally occur in the practice of landscape architects in our time and in our condition of society are:- the garden; the private estate; the "land subdivision," or development of land for residential use; the country club and country hotel grounds; the grounds of colleges and institutions, hospitals, and other public or semipublic building groups; the grounds of public buildings; exposition grounds; amusement parks; zoölogical parks and botanical gardens; cemeteries; playgrounds; the smaller intown parks; the larger country parks on the outskirts of our cities, and the great landscape reservations scattered throughout the country.

It is, of course, quite impossible in an introduction to the study of landscape design to discuss all the classes of designs which meet even all the more important uses of our modern American society. We shall consider in this chapter four types of landscape designs: the garden, the estate, land subdivision for residential purposes, and landscape parks and reservations. These types are chosen because they may exemplify both humanized and naturalistic design, and because they show the meeting by the private citizen of two of his most important needs, his dwelling and his private outdoor esthetic pleasure, and the meeting by the community of the needs of the citizens for amenity of dwelling and for outdoor recreation. These examples show, too, the way in which the field of landscape architecture merges into those of horticulture, architecture, engineering, and city planning; and in the section on land subdivision, the discussion considers how far it is possible to translate landscape beauty into terms of economic value, to create it at a certain cost and to sell it in the market at a profit.