to federal legislation and government publications, regulations and orders affecting foreign business, and answering inquiries either directly or by reference to the proper public or private sources.1

American Chambers of Commerce in Foreign Countries. Home business men often establish chambers of commerce in important commercial centers of foreign countries where they are living temporarily or have business relations. Usually these are voluntary associations supported by membership subscriptions, but in some instances financial support is given them by the home government. The French government, for example, contributes slightly to the support of French chambers of commerce in foreign countries, which are numerous and which have played an important part in the trade-promoting activities of the nation. These are really official bodies submitting reports for the benefit of the Foreign Office and the National Office of Foreign Commerce as well as for the benefit of domestic chambers of commerce and of individual business men in France. The British government has also encouraged the formation of British chambers of commerce abroad; such organizations are now found in many lands, but they are essentially private in character.

The first American chamber of commerce in a foreign country was founded in Liverpool in 1801. The number has increased rapidly in recent years, and in 1921 included chambers in London, Paris, Milan, Naples, Brussels, Barcelona, Constantinople; Shanghai, Peking, Harbin, Hankow, Tientsin, and Changsha; Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santos, Pernambico, Valparaiso, La Paz ; Barranquilla, Mexico City, Tampico, Monterey; Havana, Manila, and Johannesburg. The period immediately following the World War has been marked by a great revival of American interest in this form of trade-promoting institution.

1 Annals, 94; 114-118.

While modeled after similar institutions at home, their organization and methods are adapted to meet local conditions. Membership is sometimes limited to American individuals and firms, resident and non-resident; and is sometimes open to citizens and firms of other nationalities with certain restrictions as to office holding. The more efficient chambers employ a competent paid secretary and a clerical staff; occasionally the American attaché acts as consulting director. Local consular officers are also likely to be actively interested; they have taken the initiative in the organization of many of the chambers now in operation. The majority of these bodies are members of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States.

The services of American chambers of commerce in foreign countries may be roughly classified under two heads: (1) general service rendered to American business as a whole "by upholding in foreign countries the highest standards of American commercial practice, by bringing about a solidarity of American interests and promoting their development, by representing to foreign peoples the views and aims of American business men, and by interpreting the foreign point of view to the American business public"; (2) specific local services rendered primarily, though not solely, to members of the chamber. These may include information as to trade statistics, customs duties, transportation routes, rates of exchange, regulations as to patents, trade-marks, commercial travelers, etc.; credit reports; desirable agents and connections; assistance to American salesmen visiting the community and to foreign business men planning trips to America; facilities for business conferences; reference libraries; adjustment of trade disputes; and issuance of periodical publications.

Local Chambers of Commerce in the Home Country. In different countries there is a large number of local trade

associations, such as boards of trade or chambers of commerce, whose activities are more or less directed toward the development of foreign trade. In continental Europe these commonly have an official character, while in England and United States they are free associations. When located in large commercial centers, they are largely engaged in promoting the interests of foreign commerce; in inland cities they are primarily interested in domestic problems. Even in these inland centers, however, American chambers are notably increasing their attention to the international field. More and more of them have foreign trade departments which make available for members reference works, current periodical literature, directories, and special services to exporters; hold foreign trade conventions; carry publicity for their cities into foreign markets; and keep in close touch with the work of the government and of various national trade bodies. Some are recognized as coöperative offices of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Their work is informational, educational, and promotive.1

The National Foreign Trade Council. - Early in 1914 was organized the National Foreign Trade Council. It now consists of seventy-five members each of whom is an officer or influential figure in some important American industrial, financial, commercial, or transportation organization. These members are to represent, not the companies with which they are identified, but the various sections of the country and various business elements which have an interest in foreign trade. The council grew out of a national foreign trade convention held at Washington representing these several interests. Unlike the Chamber of Commerce of the United States, it Concerns itself exclusively with foreign commerce; and the initiative in its formation came, not from the government, but from business organizations.

1 For trade-promoting work of chambers of commerce, see DE HAAS, Ch. 5.

It was not designed to perform direct service to exporters; its functions are regarded as educational, investigatory, and advisory. It aims to educate the country at large to the need of foreign trade; to investigate foreign trade problems; to formulate policies and to bring them effectively to the attention of the people and of the government. It holds a National Foreign Trade Convention each year and publishes the proceedings which constitute a useful volume of current information and opinion; and it issues occasional monographs and pamphlets on selected topics. Among the subjects to which it has given special attention may be mentioned education for foreign trade; support and improvement of the trade services of the Departments of State and Commerce; standardization of practices and documents; development of an adequate American system of communications including cables, wireless, and postal; legalizing of combinations for export trade; provision for long-term credits and for foreign loans; a bargaining tariff system; upbuilding of an American merchant marine; and the coördination of the foreign trade activities of the whole country. It has recently organized a Trade Adviser Service, through which those desiring to enter foreign trade and those already engaged in it may secure the benefit of "the experience and opinions of those more familiar than themselves with the particular problems under consideration."

Other Nation-wide Associations in the United States. Four other associations of national scope merit special notice both because they have played a large part in the promotion of foreign trade and because they typify different bases of organization:

(a) The National Association of Manufacturers of the United States embraces in its membership manufacturers of a wide range of products in all parts of the nation. It was established in 1895 for the encouragement of domestic industry and of

foreign trade. Since that time, it has done much, first, to stimulate interest in foreign markets for American manufactures by sending commissioners to study trade possibilities in many lands, and by giving wide publicity to their findings; and, second, to assist exporting manufacturers and merchants through the Association's Foreign Trade Department. This Department is divided into three territorial divisions — the Latin-American, the Far Eastern, and the Russian - and several bureaus - translation, credit information, trademarks, compilations, and general information—each in expert hands, and kept in touch with all parts of the commercial world through thousands of correspondents. The Association publishes a monthly magazine for circulation in the United States, devoted in part to foreign commerce; four monthly magazines printed respectively in English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese, for circulation in foreign countries; a periodical volume in six languages giving importers and dealers abroad information regarding American manufacturers of various kinds of products; a confidential bulletin twice a month, bringing to the attention of export managers the wants of reputable business men abroad; and other miscellaneous bulletins, pamphlets, and exhibits. It has also been active in the establishing of sample warehouses abroad, the organizing of conferences and conventions, the entertainment of visiting business men and officials, and especially in direct correspondence with American producers and foreign firms seeking connection with them.

(b) The American Manufacturers Export Association is a non-profit, coöperative organization incorporated in 1911 to foster and promote business and commercial relations between American manufacturers and foreign nations. It maintains an office at Washington which keeps in close touch with American official representatives, chambers of commerce, and other commercial bodies in foreign countries; affords its members