In regard to the principal phenomena of physical life, such as the progress of corporeal development, the periodical phenomena of the constitution, and those other processes termed by physiologists the natural functions, the opinion is warranted, from a comprehensive view of the question, that there is no marked difference among the different races of mankind. The pathological history of the different races constitutes as much a part of their physical description, as any feature in their anatomical structure. From a survey of the facts connected with this question, it appears that the whole human family, making due allowance for endemic influences, are equally subject to those ills which "flesh is heir to," thus confirming the doctrine that a common nature pertains to mankind. This comparison is based on the fact that certain diseases are peculiar to man, a list of which has been made out by Blumenbach. An identity of species between two animals, notwithstanding a striking difference in some particulars, has been inferred, as a general rule, if their offspring has been found capable of procreating. Although this doctrine has been generally maintained by our most distinguished naturalists, yet some have rejected it as a hasty generalization. The production of hybrids is a phenomenon observed not only among mammifers, but among birds, fishes, the insect tribes, and the vegetable kingdom; and when we survey the numerous facts opposed to the generally admitted law of nature that all hybrid productions are sterile, there would seem to be some ground for doubting the soundness of the general conclusion. Thus the dog and the wolf, and the dog and the fox, will breed together, and the mixed offspring is capable of procreation. And that mules are not always barren, is a fact not unknown even to Aristotle. But as hybrid productions are almost unknown among animals in their wild and unrestrained condition, it would seem that there is a mutual repugnance between those of different species; and thus nature guards against a universal confusion of the different departments of organized creation. Notwithstanding the occasional exceptions to the general fact of the sterility of hybrid productions, it has never been observed that an offspring similar to themselves has proceeded from hybrids of an opposite sex. It is thus apparent that the vis procreatrix between different species, both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, is very defective, and that the law of nature which maintains the diversity of tribes in the organized world, is not really infringed by the isolated phenomena observed in reference to hybrid productions. That animals generally have the same form and endowments now as at the remotest period of our acquaintance with them, is an opinion confirmed by the oldest historical records, as well as by the works of art and the actual relics found in Egyptian tombs. The zoological descriptions of Aristotle, composed twenty-two centuries ago, are still faithful to nature in every particular. Hence it would appear that insurmountable barriers to the intermixture of species, at least among wild animals, have been provided by nature, in the instinctive aversion to union with other species, in the sterility of hybrid productions, and in the law of the reproduction of the corporeal and psychical characters of the parent in the offspring. These facts have an important bearing upon the doctrine that mankind constitutes a single species. It is well known to horticulturists and those engaged in breeding domesticated animals that, by crossing and intermixing varieties, a mixed breed superior in almost every physical quality to the parent races is often produced; and it has also been observed that the intermixture of different races of the human family has produced breeds physically superior, generally speaking, to either ancestral race. Now, as it is a law, according to the high authority of Buf fon and Hunter, that those animals of opposite sexes, notwithstanding some striking differences in appearance, whose offspring is equally prolific with themselves, belong to one and the same species, it follows that these facts afford a strong confirmation of the conclusion deduced from many others, viz., that there is but one human species; for, as just remarked, whilst the offspring of distinct species, (real hybrids,) are so little prolific that their stock soon becomes extinct, it is found that the mixed offspring of different varieties of the same species generally exceeds the parent races in corporeal vigor and in the tendency to multiplication. This law, however, does not apply to the moral and intellectual endowments; for we find these deteriorated in the European by the mixture of any other race, and, on the other hand, an infusion of Caucasian blood tends in an equal degree to ennoble these qualities in the other varieties of the human family. Before proceeding to the consideration of the diversities exhibited among the various tribes of mankind, we will bring under notice what may be called accidental or congenital varieties. Among all organized productions, we find variety of form and structure in the same species, and even in the offspring of the same parents; and what is equally remarkable, we discover a tendency to perpetuate in their offspring all individual peculiarities. This constitutes an exception to the general law that animals produce their like, an exception by which it were easy to explain the present existence of diversified races, originating from the same primitive species, did not a new difficulty arise in the question, having reference to the extent of deviation of structure that may take place without breaking in upon the characteristic type of the species. There are many instances on record in which these accidental varieties have been perpetuated by hereditary transmission. One of the most extraordinary is the recent origination of a new variety of sheep in New England, called the "ancon or otter breed," in consequence of the shortness of the limbs and the greater proportionate length of the body, the fore-legs being also crooked. A male lamb produced by a ewe of the common kind, was the first ancestor of this breed; and his offspring often exhibited the same peculiarity of organization. Finding the animal unable to jump over fences, the propagation of the breed became a desirable object. That the breed is permanent appears from the following facts, communicated to the Philosophical Transactions for 1813, by Col. Humphreys : "When both parents are of the otter breed, their descendants inherit the peculiar appearance and proportions of form. I have heard but of one questionable case of a contrary nature. "When an otter ewe is impregnated by a common ram, the increase resembles wholly either the ewe or ram. The increase of a common ewe, impregnated by a ram of the new breed, follows entirely the one or the other, without blending any of the distinguishing and essential peculiarities of both. where common ewes have had twins by "Frequent instances have happened otter rams, when one exhibited the complete marks and features of the ewe, the other of the ram. The contrast has been rendered singularly striking when one short-legged and one long-legged lamb, produced at a birth, have been seen sucking the dam at the same time.” Among instances of variety of structure originating in the race of man, which are in like manner propagated through many generations, may be mentioned the oft-observed fact of supernumerary toes or fingers, and corresponding deficiencies. Hence the names of Varus and Plautus among the ancient Romans. Likewise those peculiar features by which the individuals of some families are characterized; as, for instance, the singular thickness of the upper lip in the imperial house of Austria, which was introduced, three centuries ago, by intermarriage. These organic peculiarities are often transmitted to children, even when one of the parents is of the ordinary form, for three and four generations. Hence there is reason to believe that if persons of this organic peculiarity were to intermarry exclusively, we might have a permanent race characterized by six toes or fingers. We have a similar fact in the history of the English family of" porcupine men," in whom the greater part of the body was covered with hard excrescences of a horny nature, which were transmitted hereditarily. These remarks apply equally to those peculiarities of organization which predispose to many diseases, as well as to the transmission of mental and moral qualities, all of which are truly hereditary. It is thus seen that varieties of structure are not always transmitted from first parents, and that when they have once arisen, they become, under favorable circumstances, permanent in the stock. In considering the diversities presented by the human family, we will notice first the varieties of color. The Negro and the European are the two extremes,which, as in every other particular in which the various tribes of the human family differ, run into each other by the nicest and most delicate gradations. Hence we are warranted in the opinion that difference of complexion constitutes no distinction of species, inasmuch as the skin is almost black in some nations classed as Caucasian, and even among the American tribes the extreme of a white and a black skin is exhibited. This subject is investigated at length both by Lawrence and Prichard, the former maintaining that climate has no agency in causing the varieties of color observed in the human species, whilst the latter advocates the opposite opinion. That Prichard is correct to a certain extent we will attempt to show in the sequel; but it is equally evident that the difference of color in the primary races comes under the head of accidental or congenital diversities. Having stated many facts which favor the latter opinion, Lawrence adduces analogous ones among the inferior animals. Thus, the circumstance that in many parts of England all the cattle have the same color, he refers to the custom of slaughtering all the calves which have not the desired tint. We also know that white sheep may produce black lambs; and so well aware are farmers of the liability of this color's being again transferred that they always reject black rams in breeding. But the influence of local circumstances, on the other hand,is apparent in the fact that, notwithstanding the horses which run wild in Paraguay are descended from variegated European stocks, yet they are now of one peculiar color. As regards the hair, beard, and color of the iris, we also observe strongly marked varieties in the human family. Whilst the head of the Caucasian race is adorned with an ample growth of fine locks, and his face with a copious beard, the Negro's head presents short woolly knots, and that of the American or Mongolian, coarse and straight hair, all having nearly beardless faces; and with this diminution of the beard is combined a general smoothness of the whole body. That the coloring principle in the skin and hair is of a common nature is evident, from the fact that among the white races every gradation from the fair to the dark is accompanied by a corresponding alteration in the tint of the hair. This remark applies equally to the colored varieties of men, for all these have black hair; but among the spotted Africans, according to Blumenbach, the hairs growing out of a white patch on the head are white. These facts, in connection with others observed among inferior animals, as the dog, sheep, and goat, prove sufficiently that a distinction of species cannot be established on the mere difference in the hair. What a striking contrast there is between the hairy coat of the argali or mouflon and the beautiful fleeces of our most valuable sheep, both of which belong to the same species. It is probable that the black and crisp hair of the negro tribes, called from a loose analogy woolly, may be an accidental variety. That a similar connection in point of color also exists between the skin and iris was noticed as long ago as the days of Aristotle. As regards the difference of stature and features, and peculiarity of organization, it has been already remarked that these do not give sufficient ground for establishing a distinction of species. Hence, seeing the varieties of form and structure which distinguish the inhabitants of the same region, it should not excite our surprise when we consider the diverse influence of external agencies in remote regions, to find a much greater diversity between the natives of each respectively. Indeed we find in all the departments of organized nature a diversity of structure within the limitations of species analogous to those exhibited in the human races. It is conceded on all hands, as is remarked by Blumenbach, that swine were unknown in America until carried hither from Europe; yet, notwithstanding the comparatively short period that has intervened, there now exist many breeds, exhibiting the most striking peculiarities as compared with each other or with the original stock. The pigs carried in 1509 from Spain to Cuba degenerated, according to Herrera, into a monstrous race, with toes half a span long. They here became more than twice as large as their European progenitors. Again, we find the breed of domestic swine in France, with a high convex spine and hanging head, just the reverse of that of England, with a straight back and pendulous belly. In Hungary and Sweden we meet a solidungular race. It is also observed by Blumenbach “that there is less difference in the form of the skull in the most dissimilar of mankind than between the elongated head of the Neapolitan horse and the skull of the Hungarian breed, which is remarkable for its shortness, and the extent of the lower jaw."-It thus appears, as was shown before, and will be still further illustrated, that organic structure is strikingly adapted to the necessity of local circumstances. The classification of skulls under the five general forms already described, is of course entirely arbitrary. As in every other corporeal diversity, so we find in regard to crania an imperceptible gradation among the nations of the earth, filling up the interval between the two extremes of the most perfect Caucasian model and the most exaggerated Negro specimen. Hence we must conclude that the diversities of skulls among mankind do not afford sufficient ground for a specific difference, an inference confirmed by the variations which occur in animals of the same species. Admitting then that the phenome na of variation brought under view in regard to inferior animals, which are observed both in their wild and domestic state, are analogous to the varieties which distinguish the various races of the human family, it follows that the latter should present still greater differences; for whilst each species of animals inferior to man is mostly confined to a limited region and to a mode of existence that is simple and uniform, the human races are scattered over the whole face of the earth, under every variety of physical circumstances, in addition to the influences arising from a moral and intellectual nature. Having surveyed the diversities of corporeal formation among the various races of man, it now remains to con sider their moral and intellectual differences; and so remarkable are these contrasts between the races usually distinguished as white and black, that the distinction of coloris not more striking. Whilst the most disgusting moral as well as physical portrait of man is exhibited by the hideous savages of Congo, New Holland, and New Guinea, we discover, on the other hand, that those nations which have produced the richest fruits in art and science, in religion and morals, in civilisation and government-in a word, in all that can dignify and ennoble man, -have a beautifully formed head, characterized by great development of its anterior portion. It is these races which have, at all times, not merely vanquished those of a more ignoble formation, characterized by the low retreating forehead, but held them in permanent subjection. The remarkable prominence of the cheek-bones and the projection of the jaws is another characteristic trait of savage tribes, indicating their coarse and animal nature in a great development of the organs of taste and smell.* But notwithstanding their cruelty and selfishness, their unfeeling barbarity to women and children, and their brutal apathy and indolence, unless stimulated by the desire of revenge, or roused by the pressure of actual physical want, which give to the dark races, generally speaking, the lowest degree of moral feelings, we yet find the inferiority of the intellectual faculties, compared with the white races, more general and strongly marked.† From an extensive series of analogies among the different races of man brought under view by Prichard, he attempts to establish the conclusion, "that the phenomena of the human mind and the moral and intellectual history of the human races afford no The physiognomy of the Fejee Chief, recently brought to this country by the squadron of the Exploring Expedition, and who had been captured on account of the massacre, several years ago, of part of the crew of one of our vessels, upon whom he displayed his cannibal propensities, afforded a fine illustration of this law. We would be distinctly understood as using the terms, white and black races, in the general sense of Caucasian and Ethiopian varieties. The color of the skin implies no distinction of races; for, as is shown throughout this article, the African tribes vary much in this respect,-the American exhibit the extremes of white and black,— and even the Caucasian, generally characterized as white, present nations decidedly black. In the frontispiece to the third volume of Prichard's work, we have a striking specimen of a black Caucasian, being a portrait of Ramohun Roy, "a Brahmin of undoubtedly pure race." proof of diversity of origin in the fami- parent to the offspring, that the mind, notwithstanding it is immortal and immaterial, depends for its manifestations and developments on organic structure, which last determines the intellectual grade of the individual,—and that there is an intimate connection between physical features and moral and intellectual character, both of which are influenced by local causes. Hence it follows that we regard the mind of every human being, as it emanated from the Creator, identical in its nature. The difference between indi*viduals, in this respect, is the result of the peculiar organization of the brain and of education. Towards the Deity, the original relation of the Negro and the European is the same, but the one has far outstripped the other in the development of the material structure through which mind is manifested. We repudiate the idea of a "mind diseased;" for as it is immortal and immaterial, it can suffer no change from disease; but to have sound manifestations of mind, we must have healthy organic structure. Upon the doctrine of a plurality of mental organs, we are enabled also to explain the phenomenon of monomania or madness upon a single subject. From these facts, as will be seen, Prichard, following the footsteps of Blumenbach, draws the inference that there is nothing in the organization of the brain of the most debased Negro tribes, which affords a presumption of inferior moral or intellectual endowments. On the other hand, Lawrence uses the following language:-"I deem the moral and intellectual character of the Negro inferior, and decidedly so, to that of the European; and, as this inferiority arises from a corresponding difference of organization, I must regard it as his natural destiny." Now, we will attempt to show, in following up the physical ethnography of various nations, that both these conclusions, though correct in part, abound in error. The writer would here, however, first announce his own creed. We believe that the brain is an aggregate of many distinct organs, each having a peculiar function, that the varieties of moral feeling and of capacity for knowledge and reflection, as a general law, depend on diversities of cerebral organization, which are indicated by differences in the shape of the skull,--that a cerebral organ is not, perhaps, less susceptible of improvement and development than a muscle,*-that moral and intellectual qualities, not less than physical, are transmittible from the In taking a general survey of the physical ethnography of the African races, it will be necessary first to advert to its physical geography. Africa has generally been divided into three great regions, two of which comprise immense mountainous tracts or tablelands, whilst the third is the intervening space consisting of an ocean of sand. The elevated region of Northern Africa is a continuous system of highlands, which, under the denomination of Atlas, extend along the Mediterranean coast. These highlands on the border of the Atlantic ocean seem to be a continuation of the system of mountains in the Spanish Peninsula, separated only by the narrow strait of the Mediterranean; and on each side of this sea, the vegetation in general presents a marked analogy. The It cannot be doubted that a partial change of figure in the cranium of the adult takes place from time to time, according to the pursuits of the individual. That bones change more easily than the softer parts is proved by physiological experiments and the phenomena of discase. By the absorbents, their elements are continually removed a loss which is as constantly repaired by the deposition of new particles secreted from the blood. |